The current of sputtering ions in a sputtering process is determined by the voltage applied and the type of sputtering technique used. In DC diode sputtering, a DC voltage of 500 - 1000 V is applied, which ignites an argon low-pressure plasma between a target and a substrate. Positive argon ions are then accelerated towards the target due to this voltage, causing atoms to be ejected from the target and deposited onto the substrate.
In RF sputtering, an alternating current with frequencies around 14 MHz is used. This allows for the sputtering of insulating materials, as the electrons can be accelerated to oscillate with the RF, while the heavier ions react only to the average voltage generated in the RF system. The ions are affected by the self-bias voltage (VDC) that accelerates them to the target, which approaches the equivalent voltage applied during DC sputtering.
The current of sputtering ions is directly related to the voltage applied and the type of sputtering technique used. In DC diode sputtering, the current is determined by the 500 - 1000 V DC voltage, while in RF sputtering, the current is determined by the self-bias voltage (VDC) that accelerates the ions to the target.
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The frequency used in RF sputtering is typically in the range of 5-30 MHz, with 13.56 MHz being the most common frequency. This frequency is chosen due to its allocation for industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) instruments by the ITU Radio Regulations, ensuring it does not interfere with telecommunication services. Additionally, 13.56 MHz is low enough to allow sufficient time for the momentum transfer of argon ions to the target, which is crucial for the sputtering process.
The choice of 13.56 MHz is strategic for several reasons:
ISM Band Allocation: The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has designated 13.56 MHz as part of the ISM band, specifically for industrial, scientific, and medical applications. This designation helps prevent interference with other radio frequency communications, ensuring that the sputtering process can operate without disrupting or being disrupted by other RF-based technologies.
Momentum Transfer Efficiency: At this frequency, the time scale is conducive to the efficient transfer of momentum from argon ions to the target material. This is critical because if the frequency were higher, the ions would not have enough time to effectively transfer their momentum, potentially leading to less efficient sputtering.
Electron Dynamics: The frequency of 13.56 MHz is also balanced in terms of electron dynamics. At higher frequencies, electrons become more dominant in the sputtering process, which can alter the deposition characteristics, making it more similar to electron beam evaporation. By using 13.56 MHz, the process maintains a balance where both ions and electrons play significant roles, but the ions are not immobilized, ensuring effective sputtering.
In summary, the frequency of 13.56 MHz in RF sputtering is a result of both regulatory compliance and practical considerations related to the physics of ion and electron interactions during the sputtering process. This frequency ensures efficient and interference-free operation of the sputtering system, making it ideal for the deposition of thin films, especially for non-conductive materials.
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Dental ceramic is also commonly referred to as dental porcelain. This term is particularly apt because dental ceramics are often made from porcelain, a type of ceramic material known for its strength and aesthetic qualities. Dental porcelain is used in the fabrication of various dental prostheses such as crowns and veneers. It is chosen for its ability to mimic the natural appearance of teeth and its compatibility with the oral environment. However, dental porcelain is softer than natural dentin and requires support from the underlying tooth structure or a bonding agent to ensure durability and functionality.
Dental ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials typically derived from silicate minerals. They are processed at high temperatures in a dental furnace, which is specifically designed to handle the heat and pressure necessary for creating dental restorations. These materials are integral to dental prostheses systems that replace or repair damaged or missing dental structures. Despite their aesthetic appeal and biocompatibility, dental ceramics are brittle and have lower tensile strength, necessitating additional reinforcement, such as metal ceramic systems, to enhance their mechanical strength and resistance to functional forces in the oral cavity.
Metal ceramic systems combine the aesthetic properties of ceramics with the mechanical strength of metals. This alloy is used in dental restorations to provide a durable and aesthetically pleasing solution. The metal ceramic crown, for example, is known for its stability and durability, although care must be taken in its design to prevent chipping or fracturing under stress, particularly in bridges involving multiple teeth.
In summary, dental porcelain or dental ceramics are the alternative names for the ceramic materials used in dentistry. These materials are crucial for creating dental prostheses that are both functional and aesthetically pleasing, despite their inherent brittleness and need for additional support structures.
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Dental ceramics in dentistry can be broadly categorized into several types, each with specific applications and properties:
Resin Composites: These materials are used for restorative purposes due to their aesthetic properties and concerns about mercury in dental amalgams. They consist of a resin binder, typically an aromatic dimethacrylate monomer, and a ceramic filler such as pulverized quartz, colloidal silica, or silicate glasses containing strontium or barium for X-ray opacity. Resin composites are less durable than dental amalgams, especially in posterior restorations, and can degrade over time due to the breakdown of the bond between filler particles and the matrix.
Dental Porcelain: A type of unglazed ceramic, dental porcelain is used for making crowns and veneers. It is composed of about 60% pure kaolin and 40% other additives like feldspar, quartz, or oxides to enhance color, hardness, and durability. Porcelain is softer than natural dentin and requires support from the natural tooth structure or a bonding agent.
Metal Ceramic Systems: These systems combine the aesthetic properties of ceramics with the mechanical strength of metals. They are used to create durable and visually appealing dental prostheses that can withstand the functional forces in the oral cavity.
Technical (Advanced) Ceramics: These ceramics are used in high-temperature applications, such as dental implants. They are processed in highly uniform furnaces at temperatures up to 2,050°F (1,120°C) to ensure precise shaping and bonding without shrinkage or distortion.
Each type of dental ceramic serves a specific purpose in dentistry, from aesthetic restorations to durable prostheses, and is selected based on the specific needs of the patient and the clinical situation.
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Porcelain crowns are known for their natural-looking appearance. They are commonly used for front teeth because of their visibility. Porcelain is a durable material that can withstand the same pressures as natural teeth. It is also lightweight and easy to shape and fit.
Porcelain crowns can be matched to the shade of your natural teeth, making them blend in seamlessly with the rest of your smile. This is why they are often preferred for cosmetic purposes.
There are different types of porcelain crowns available. Porcelain fused to metal (PFM) crowns have a metal core covered with a layer of porcelain. These crowns can provide both aesthetic appeal and durability. They can be a good choice for both front and back teeth. However, there is a risk of the porcelain portion chipping or breaking off over time.
All-ceramic or all-porcelain crowns are another option. These crowns are made entirely of ceramic material and are popular for their natural appearance. They can be matched to the color of your natural teeth and are less likely to chip compared to PFM crowns. However, they may not be as durable as PFM crowns and can potentially weaken the adjacent teeth.
It is important to note that dental porcelains, including those used for crowns, are softer than dentin, the hard tissue found in the mouth. Therefore, they need to be supported either by the natural tooth structure or by a luting agent that sticks to both surfaces.
Overall, porcelain crowns offer a natural-looking option for dental restorations. They can be customized to match the color and shape of your natural teeth, providing a seamless and aesthetically pleasing result.
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