FAQ
What are muffle furnace used for?
Muffle furnaces are mainly used for high-temperature applications in industrial manufacturing and laboratory environments. They provide a controlled and insulated environment for heating materials, allowing precise temperature control. Muffle furnaces are ideal for ashing samples, heat-treating applications, and materials research. They are commonly used for melting glass, creating enamel coatings, technical ceramics, soldering, and brazing. Muffle furnaces use technology and design to achieve greater control of temperature uniformity and isolate heated materials from combustion contaminants.
What are the main types of shaking and mixing equipment?
The main types of shaking and mixing equipment include laboratory multifunctional small speed-adjustable horizontal shakers, laboratory oscillating orbital shakers, laboratory multifunctional mixer rotation oscillators, laboratory disc rotary mixers, lab internal rubber mixers, laboratory small constant temperature heating magnetic stirrers, vibration mills, high energy vibratory ball mills, slapping type sterile homogenizers, vibration sieves, and various types of laboratory homogenizers.
What is a tablet punching machine?
A tablet punching machine, also known as a tablet press, is a piece of machinery used to compress powder into tablets of uniform shape and size. It is widely used in industries such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, and chemicals.
What is a homogenizer and what are its main applications?
A homogenizer is a laboratory device used for mixing, emulsifying, and breaking down particles in a sample to achieve a uniform mixture. Its main applications include microbial inactivation, emulsification in food and medicine production, cell fractionation in biotech industries, and facilitating stable emulsions and dispersions.
What are the main types of laboratory glassware?
The main types of laboratory glassware include stirring rods, oscillating beads, optical glass sheets, single and jacket glass reactors, specimen jars, PTFE flasks, glass tissue grinders, PTFE volumetric flasks, PTFE measuring cylinders, PTFE triangular bottles, PTFE reagent bottles, PTFE sampling spoons, and constant temperature heating magnetic stirrers.
What are the types of muffle furnace?
Box furnace, tube furnace, crucible furnace, split furnace, vacuum furnace, and multi-zone furnace are some types of muffle furnaces. The choice of muffle furnace depends on the specific application and requirements of the user.
What is a heated circulator?
A heated circulator is a laboratory equipment used to precisely control the temperature of fluids. It is often used in experiments that require consistent and precise temperature control, such as dissolution testing. The circulator typically features a liquid reservoir, a heating system, and a temperature control mechanism. The temperature range of a heated circulator can be as wide as -95°C to 300°C. It is commonly used in life science research, drug discovery, material testing, wafer production, and wet chemistry.
What are the applications of shaking and mixing equipment?
Shaking and mixing equipment are used in various laboratory applications such as bioengineering, sample preparation, homogenization, and mixing of chemical raw materials. They are essential for tasks like vibration of culture dishes, flasks, and beakers, as well as for efficient sample mixing and homogenization in fields like biology, chemistry, and pharmaceuticals.
What is a thermal element?
A thermal element is a device that converts electrical energy into heat in order to raise the temperature of an object or space. There are several types of thermal elements, including tubular heating elements, radiative heating elements, and combination heating element systems. Heat transfer occurs through thermal resistance and thermal capacitance, and there are three sources of heat: a power source, a temperature source, and fluid flow. Thermal elements are commonly used in laboratory equipment, as well as in various domestic and industrial applications.
What are the main types of tablet punching machines?
The main types of tablet punching machines include lab scale rotary tablet punching machines, single punch manual tablet punching machines, single punch electric tablet punching machines, mass production rotary tablet punching machines, and automatic lab pellet press machines.
What is a glass reactor?
A glass reactor is a laboratory instrument used to facilitate chemical reactions. It provides an environment conducive for reactions and holds the reactants in place, while also allowing for easy monitoring of the progress of the reaction. There are two main types of glass reactors: batch reactors and continuous reactors. Batch reactors are smaller in size and can only handle small quantities of reactants, while continuous reactors allow for the pouring of reactants into the reaction chamber continuously and can handle larger volumes of reactants. Glass reactors are used in a variety of applications, from chemical synthesis to environmental and life science research.
What is rotating disk electrode used for?
Rotating disk electrode (RDE) is a hydrodynamic working electrode used in electrochemical applications such as corrosion studies, fuel cell research, catalyst development, and controlling mass transport of reactants to the electrode surface. It is used when defined mass transport to the sample electrode is desired. The disk's rotation induces a constant flux of analyte to the electrode, making it ideal for investigating different electrochemical phenomena such as multi-electron transfer, kinetics of slow electron transfer, adsorption/desorption steps, and electrochemical reaction mechanisms. In analytical chemistry, RDE is used in three-electrode systems for hydrodynamic voltammetry to investigate reaction mechanisms related to redox chemistry.
What is an electrode in electrochemistry?
An electrode is a solid electrical conductor that serves as the point where current enters and leaves the electrolyte in an electrochemical cell. When the current leaves the electrode, it is called the cathode, and when it enters, it is called the anode. Electrodes are essential components of electrochemical cells, transporting produced electrons from one half-cell to another, which produces an electrical charge. The charge is based on a standard electrode system (SHE) with a reference potential of 0 volts and serves as a medium for any cell potential calculation.
What are the different types of homogenizers available?
There are several types of homogenizers, including blade type homogenizers, high-pressure homogenizers, and ultrasonic homogenizers. Blade type homogenizers use high-speed rotating blades to create shearing effects. High-pressure homogenizers use homogenization valves and high-pressure pumps to force substances through small tubes or valves. Ultrasonic homogenizers use ultrasonic cavitation to disrupt components.
What is a high pressure reactor?
A high-pressure reactor is an equipment designed to perform chemical reactions or other processes under elevated pressure and temperature conditions. It is used in various industries, such as chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and materials science, to carry out processes requiring high pressure or temperatures. It includes a pressure vessel, closure, temperature, and pressure control, stirring or mixing mechanism, and ports or connections. High-pressure reactors are useful in studying reaction kinetics, performing catalytic reactions, synthesizing new materials, and developing novel chemical processes. They come in various sizes and designs, with temperature control and agitation options, making them suitable for a wide range of reactions.
What are the applications of laboratory glassware?
Laboratory glassware is used in various applications such as chemical experiments, preventing zeolite formation, optical applications, synthetic reactions, distillation, filtration, specimen preservation, handling corrosive substances, high-temperature applications, and precise temperature control and mixing in laboratory settings.
How do electric laboratory presses work?
Electric laboratory presses typically consist of a motor-driven ram or piston that applies force to a sample through a platen or die. The electric motor is controlled by a control panel, allowing the user to set and adjust the desired force and speed. The sample is placed between the platens, and as the motor drives the ram, the force is applied, exerting pressure on the sample. This controlled pressure enables various processes such as compression testing, powder compaction, sample preparation, and material synthesis.
What is muffle furnace in chemistry?
A muffle furnace is a type of oven equipment used in chemistry that can reach high temperatures and provides a controlled and insulated environment for heating materials, allowing precise temperature control. It separates the object to be heated from all byproducts of combustion from the heat source. Muffle furnaces are used in solid-state reactions, such as reducing metals or creating oxides, and for limiting oxygen exposure in materials. They are also used in high-temperature chemical vapor deposition processes and are ideal for ashing samples, heat-treating applications, and materials research.
What is the purpose of a heater circulator?
The purpose of a heater circulator is to provide a consistent and precise temperature control for experiments that require heating internally or externally. These circulators feature a liquid reservoir and a heating system, along with a temperature control mechanism. They are ideal for maintaining a few temperature set points over a long period of time and are commonly used in laboratories for experiments that involve liquid baths. Heating circulators come in open or closed baths and offer a wide temperature range from –90 to 300°C and heat load removal of up to 1000 watts.
What principles do shaking and mixing equipment operate on?
Shaking and mixing equipment operate on principles such as constant-speed oscillation, high-frequency vibration, and precise temperature control. They use mechanisms like brushless motors, microcomputer control, and adjustable speed and angle settings to ensure efficient and thorough mixing of samples.
How does a thermal element work?
A thermal element works by converting electrical energy into heat through the process of Joule heating. When an electric current flows through the element, it encounters resistance, and this results in heating of the element. Metal and ceramic heating elements operate on the principle of electric resistance heating, generating heat by resisting the flow of electricity through the material. The coefficient of electrical resistance of the material determines its ability to generate heat proportional to the amount of current flowing through it. The generated heat radiates outwards into the heat treatment chamber, making thermal elements a highly effective method of generating heat.
What is the principle of a tablet punching machine?
The principle of a tablet punching machine involves compression. The machine uses two punches and a die to compress powder into tablets. The upper and lower punches strike together in the die, applying high force to bond the granulated material into a hard tablet.
What are the advantages of glass reactor?
The advantages of glass reactors are their ability to optimize and replicate chemical reactions, and provide a clear view of the reaction process. They are corrosion-resistant, work with different atmospheric pressures and vacuum, and can be used for a variety of applications such as catalytic research, process engineering, and biomass research. Glass reactors are also designed with safety in mind, allowing for safe processing of solvents and acids. Other benefits include the availability of various options such as heating/cooling systems, vacuum pumps, PH probes, and pressure gauges.
What is the rotating electrode method?
The rotating electrode method is a technique used in electrochemical applications such as fuel cell research, corrosion studies, catalyst development, and controlling mass transport of reactants to the electrode surface. It involves using a rotating disk electrode (RDE) that rotates during experiments, inducing a constant flux of analyte to the electrode. The RDE can quickly achieve conditions in which the steady-state current is controlled by the solution flow rather than diffusion. By running experiments at various rotation rates, different electrochemical phenomena can be investigated, including multi-electron transfer, adsorption/desorption steps, and electrochemical reaction mechanisms.
What are the 3 electrodes in electrochemistry?
The three electrodes commonly used in electrochemistry are the Working Electrode (WE), Reference Electrode (RE), and Counter Electrode (CE). The WE is where the electrochemical reaction occurs and the current is measured. The RE provides a stable reference potential for the measurement. The CE completes the circuit and balances the charge between the WE and RE. Proper preparation and use of each electrode is crucial for accurate electrochemical experiments.
How does a homogenizer work?
A homogenizer works by applying three fundamental physical principles: shearing, cavitation, and turbulence. Shearing reduces the size of large particles and droplets by friction between fluid layers moving at different speeds. Cavitation occurs when a fluid experiences a significant pressure reduction, causing the formation and collapse of tiny vapor pockets that generate shockwaves to break particles. Turbulence helps in mixing and dispersing the particles uniformly.
What causes an increase in pressure within a high-pressure reactor?
Increasing pressure inside a pressure reactor can be achieved through various means. One common method is by heating a sealed pressure vessel, where temperature and pressure increase proportionately, impacting reaction kinetics. Alternatively, the reaction occurring inside the vessel can induce pressure, and agitation can accelerate this process.
In situations where heating is unsuitable or insufficient pressure is generated, manual pressurization is possible with a compressed gas source, such as a compressor or a pre-compressed canister of inert gas.
Pressure reactors utilize pressure relief valves to safely regulate and maintain pressure, emphasizing their reliable and safe operation.
What are the advantages of using borosilicate glass in laboratory glassware?
The advantages of using borosilicate glass in laboratory glassware include excellent optical properties, a smooth surface for clear visibility, and the option for added protection through transect coatings, which enhance the efficiency of inspection processes.
What are the advantages of using electric laboratory presses?
Electric laboratory presses offer several advantages over manual or hydraulic presses. The electric motor provides precise control over the applied force, allowing for accurate and repeatable results. They offer adjustable speed and force settings, making them versatile for different applications and materials. Electric presses are generally quieter, cleaner, and more energy-efficient compared to hydraulic systems. Additionally, they eliminate the need for hydraulic fluid and associated maintenance. Electric presses also have a smaller footprint, making them suitable for laboratory environments with limited space.
What is the use of muffle furnace for ash?
Muffle furnaces are commonly used for ashing samples, which involves heating materials to high temperatures to determine their percentage of ash content. This process is helpful in testing and treating materials in various industries such as cement making, foundry, and nuclear sectors. The standard muffle furnace is also used for manufacturing glass, ceramics, and other materials. Overall, muffle furnaces play a vital role in material testing and treatment at high temperatures, making them a crucial apparatus in many industries.
How does a heater circulator work?
A heater circulator works by heating a fluid and then circulating it through the system. The heating element, often an electric coil or a heating mantle, provides controlled heat to the fluid. The pump, typically a magnetic or centrifugal pump, circulates the fluid through tubes or a bath, ensuring even temperature distribution. The fluid absorbs heat from the heating element and transfers it to the desired location, such as a reaction vessel or a temperature-controlled chamber. Temperature sensors and controllers are used to monitor and maintain the desired temperature within a specified range. The combination of heating and circulation allows for precise temperature control and uniform heating throughout the system.
What are the advantages of using shaking and mixing equipment?
The advantages of using shaking and mixing equipment include their ability to run for long periods without maintenance, precise control over mixing speed and temperature, efficient sample preparation, and versatility for various applications. They also offer features like corrosion-resistant designs, user-friendly interfaces, and customizable settings for optimal performance.
What are the advantages of using thermal elements?
Thermal elements offer several advantages in temperature measurement. Firstly, they have a wide temperature range, allowing for accurate measurements across a broad spectrum, from extremely low temperatures to high temperatures. They also have high sensitivity, meaning they can detect even small temperature changes. Additionally, thermal elements have excellent stability and repeatability, providing reliable and consistent temperature readings over time. They are rugged and durable, making them suitable for use in harsh environments. Thermal elements can also be easily integrated into various systems and instruments for temperature monitoring and control.
What are the applications of tablet punching machines?
Tablet punching machines are used in various industries including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, nutraceuticals, fitness, herbs, confectionary, industrial pellets manufacturing, cleaning products, and mining.
What material is glass reactor?
The glass reactor is made of borosilicate glass and has excellent physical and chemical properties. The borosilicate glass is highly resistant to thermal shock, chemical corrosion, and mechanical impacts, making it ideal for use in laboratory equipment. The glass is also transparent, allowing for easy observation of the reaction inside the vessel. The glass reactor is designed to withstand high temperatures and pressure, and it is used in various industries such as petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and dye, among others.
What is the rotating ring-disk electrode method?
The rotating ring-disk electrode (RRDE) is a double working electrode used in analytical chemistry for hydrodynamic voltammetry. It is designed for investigating reaction mechanisms related to redox chemistry and other chemical phenomena. The RRDE has a disk electrode at its center and a ring electrode around the disk. The system takes advantage of the laminar flow created during rotation, allowing for controlled contact of the solution with the disk and ring electrodes. By varying the rate of rotation, it is possible to determine the rate of the chemical reaction and investigate different electrochemical phenomena.
What are the different types of electrochemical electrodes?
There are several types of electrochemical electrodes, each designed for specific applications. The most common types include working electrodes, reference electrodes, and counter electrodes. Working electrodes are the primary electrodes where the electrochemical reaction of interest takes place. Reference electrodes provide a stable reference potential against which the working electrode potential can be measured. Counter electrodes complete the circuit by providing a site for the flow of electrons to balance out the current passing through the working electrode.
What are the advantages of using a homogenizer in laboratory settings?
The advantages of using a homogenizer include precise sample preparation, efficient mixing and emulsification, preservation of molecular composition in samples, and the ability to mix naturally immiscible materials. It is particularly useful in fields such as biology, chemistry, pharmaceuticals, and food science for achieving uniform and consistent results.
How does a pressure reactor work?
A pressure reactor is a laboratory device used to conduct chemical reactions at high pressure. It works by controlling the pressure within the reactor vessel, allowing researchers to increase the pressure to desired levels and monitor the reaction as it occurs. The high-pressure environment can alter the reaction rate and outcome, making pressure reactors an essential tool for understanding the underlying mechanisms of chemical reactions. Pressure reactors are designed with safety in mind, featuring high-quality pressure-resistant materials, automatic pressure control systems, and leak-detection systems. They come in various sizes and designs, making them suitable for a wide range of reactions.
How does borosilicate glass enhance the efficiency of laboratory processes?
Borosilicate glass enhances the efficiency of laboratory processes by providing a smooth surface that offers excellent visibility, allowing for better inspection and monitoring of reactions and experiments. Its optical properties make it a preferred material over plastics, metals, and other building materials.
What are the applications of electric laboratory presses?
Electric laboratory presses find applications in a wide range of scientific and industrial settings. They are commonly used for compression testing of materials, including polymers, metals, ceramics, and composites. These presses are also employed in powder compaction processes, such as tabletting in pharmaceutical manufacturing or the preparation of powdered samples for analysis. Electric presses are used for material synthesis, such as the formation of thin films or the fabrication of electrodes. Additionally, they are utilized in research and development for sample preparation, sample extrusion, and various other processes that require precise application of force and pressure.
What is the temperature of muffle furnace?
The temperature range of a muffle furnace is between 800°C to 1800°C, with a maximum temperature of 1473 K (1200°C; 2192°F). It is crucial to choose a furnace that will reach the desired temperature for your applications. Muffle furnaces are commonly used in metallurgy, glassmaking, ceramics, and other industries that require materials to be melted or heated to high temperatures. It usually takes approximately an hour for a muffle furnace to reach maximum temperature.
What types of fluids can be used with a heater circulator?
Heater circulators can be used with a variety of fluids depending on the specific application requirements. Commonly used fluids include water, oils, and silicone-based fluids. Water is a popular choice due to its availability, low cost, and good heat transfer properties. Oils, such as mineral oil or silicone oil, are often used when higher temperature ranges or better heat stability are required. Silicone-based fluids are suitable for applications that involve low temperatures or require inertness. It is important to select a fluid that is compatible with the materials of construction in the heater circulator and consider the desired temperature range, heat transfer properties, and safety considerations when choosing the appropriate fluid.
What are the different types of thermal elements?
There are several types of thermal elements, including thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors. Thermocouples are made of two dissimilar metals joined together, and they generate a voltage proportional to the temperature difference between their junctions. RTDs are made of pure metals, such as platinum or copper, and their resistance changes with temperature. Thermistors are made of temperature-sensitive semiconducting materials and have a large change in resistance with temperature.
What are the advantages of using a tablet punching machine?
The advantages of using a tablet punching machine include uniform tablet size and shape, efficient production, easy operation, and the ability to produce tablets of various shapes and sizes. Additionally, the machines are designed for safety and ease of cleaning.
What are the different types of glass reactors?
Different types of glass reactors include single-layer, double-layer, and three-layer glass reactors. Other types of reactors include glass-lined reactors, hydrothermal synthesis reactors, magnetic stirring reactors, electric heating reactors, and steam reactors. Glass reactors are commonly used in high and low-temperature reactions, vacuum reactions, solvent synthesis at a constant temperature, distillation and reflux reactions, vacuum distillation reactions, extraction separation reactions, purified reactions, and concentration reactions.
What are the advantages of rotating disc electrode?
The advantages of rotating disk electrodes (RDE) include the ability to control mass transport of reactants to the electrode surface, achieve laminar flow of solution towards and across the electrode, and investigate different electrochemical phenomena such as multi-electron transfer and electrochemical reaction mechanisms. RDEs are commonly used in electrochemical applications such as corrosion studies, fuel cell research, and catalyst development. The base rotation rate of RDEs can be manually adjusted, and the electrode rotation rate can be precisely controlled with an electric motor. RDEs are a powerful tool for investigating reaction mechanisms related to redox chemistry and other chemical phenomena.
What materials are commonly used for electrochemical electrodes?
Various materials can be used for electrochemical electrodes depending on the specific application and requirements. Common materials include noble metals such as platinum, gold, and silver, which provide excellent conductivity and chemical stability. Carbon-based materials like graphite or glassy carbon are also commonly used due to their high surface area and good electrical properties. Additionally, metal oxides, conductive polymers, and composite materials are employed for specific applications that necessitate unique properties such as catalytic activity or selectivity.
Can you explain the application of homogenizers in microbial inactivation?
Homogenizers are used for microbial inactivation by mechanically destroying the cell wall of vegetative bacteria through processes like turbulence, impingement, spatial pressure, and velocity gradients. This method is particularly effective in food and medicine production, where it provides an alternative to heat treatment or pasteurization, which can degrade product quality.
What makes PTFE glassware suitable for handling corrosive substances?
PTFE glassware is suitable for handling corrosive substances due to its exceptional chemical resistance, temperature stability, and non-stick properties. These features make PTFE flasks, cylinders, and bottles ideal for use in laboratories where corrosive chemicals are involved.
What considerations should be taken when selecting an electric laboratory press?
Several factors should be considered when selecting an electric laboratory press. The required force capacity should match the specific application and the maximum force expected. The platen size should accommodate the sample size and shape. The speed range and control options should align with the desired testing or processing requirements. It is important to ensure the press is constructed from durable materials and designed for long-term use. Safety features, such as emergency stop buttons and protective shields, should be evaluated. Additionally, the availability of accessories, such as different platens or heating options, can be crucial for specific applications.
Can a heater circulator be used for cooling applications?
Yes, certain models of heater circulators can also be used for cooling applications. These units are often referred to as heating and cooling circulators or temperature control systems. They feature both heating and cooling capabilities, allowing for precise temperature control within a wide range. The cooling function is achieved through a refrigeration system that circulates a coolant, such as water or refrigerant, through the system. This enables the user to cool down a process, vessel, or chamber to the desired temperature. Heating and cooling circulators are commonly used in applications that require rapid temperature changes or control over a broad temperature range, such as thermal cycling, material testing, or biological sample preservation.
How should thermal elements be calibrated and maintained?
Calibration and maintenance of thermal elements are crucial to ensure their accuracy and reliability. Regular calibration should be performed using certified reference thermometers or temperature standards to verify the accuracy of temperature readings. Calibration intervals may vary depending on the application and industry requirements. Proper storage and handling of the thermal elements are important to prevent damage or contamination. It is recommended to protect the elements from extreme temperatures, moisture, and corrosive substances. Regular inspection of the element's connections, insulation, and protective sheaths should be carried out, and any damage or wear should be addressed promptly. Proper cleaning of the elements, if required, should be done following manufacturer guidelines. It is important to follow the manufacturer's recommendations for maintenance and consult with experts when necessary.
How does a manual tablet press work?
A manual tablet press works by coordinating the movement of the upper punch, middle die, and lower punch. The upper punch is installed in the upper die hole, the middle die in the middle layer, and the lower punch in the lower die hole. The turntable rotates, causing the punches to move up and down regularly along a fixed track, compressing the powder into tablets.
What temperature should a glass reactor be?
The temperature range of a glass reactor may vary depending on the model and its intended use. In general, glass reactors can operate at temperatures as low as -80°C and as high as 300°C. However, the optimal working temperature will depend on the specific reaction being conducted and the chemicals being used. It is important to carefully monitor and control the temperature of the glass reactor to ensure the safety and effectiveness of the reaction.
What factors should be considered when selecting an electrochemical electrode?
When selecting an electrochemical electrode, several factors should be considered. The choice of electrode material is crucial, as it determines the electrode's conductivity, stability, and catalytic activity. The electrode size and geometry should match the specific experimental setup and requirements. Consideration should also be given to the compatibility of the electrode material with the electrolyte and the potential range of the electrochemical system. Additionally, cost, availability, and ease of fabrication should be taken into account when selecting an electrode for practical applications.
How does homogenization affect the quality of milk?
Homogenization of milk involves distributing and shrinking the milk fat globules so that they are evenly dispersed throughout the milk. This process not only improves the consistency and texture of milk but also prolongs its shelf life by preventing the separation of fat from the liquid.
What industries benefit from using tablet punching machines?
Tablet punching machines benefit industries such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, chemicals, nutraceuticals, fitness, herbs, confectionary, industrial pellets manufacturing, cleaning products, and mining.
How can electrochemical electrodes be used in various applications?
Electrochemical electrodes find applications in a wide range of fields, including energy storage and conversion, corrosion analysis, sensors and biosensors, electroplating, and water treatment. They are used in batteries and fuel cells to facilitate the electrochemical reactions that store and convert energy. Electrochemical sensors and biosensors utilize electrodes to detect and measure analytes in various samples. Electroplating and electrorefining processes rely on electrodes to deposit or extract metal ions. Additionally, electrochemical electrodes are employed in electrochemical machining, electroanalysis, and many other research and industrial applications that involve studying or manipulating electrochemical phenomena.
What safety features are included in tablet punching machines?
Tablet punching machines include safety features such as all moving parts covered with stainless steel (SS) coverings, heavy-duty structure made from painted material to avoid vibration, and easily dismantled contact parts for cleaning.
Why has the tablet press evolved over time?
The tablet press has evolved due to the development of innovations and research driven by an increase in population and demand for tablets. Additionally, stringent regulations to comply with Current Good Manufacturing Process (CGMP) have influenced the evolution of tablet presses.
