What Is The Rationale For Using Steel Wool Cathodes? Boost Efficiency In Metal Recovery From Dilute Solutions
Discover why stainless steel fiber felt and steel wool cathodes are essential for high-efficiency electrowinning in dilute electrolytes.
How Does Optical Laser Induced Chemical Vapour Deposition (Optical Lcvd) Work? Precision Photo-Chemical Synthesis
Learn how Optical LCVD uses resonant laser absorption for gas-phase decomposition to create ultra-micro particles with steep temperature gradients.
What Is Organometallic Chemical Vapour Deposition (Mocvd)? Advanced Semiconductor Growth Explained
Learn how MOCVD utilizes organometallic precursors and thermal decomposition to produce high-quality compound semiconductors like GaN for LEDs.
What Types Of Materials Are Used For Canisters In The Hip Process? Optimized Choices For Material Densification
Learn why mild steel, stainless steel, and nickel are the preferred materials for Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) canisters to ensure part integrity.
What Role Does A Cation Exchange Membrane Play In Glycerol Oxidation? Enhance H-Type Cell Purity And Efficiency
Learn how cation exchange membranes regulate mass transport, ensure chemical purity, and maintain stability in glycerol oxidation processes.
How Does The Use Of A High-Pressure Stainless Steel Autoclave Influence Bivo4 Catalysts? Boost Synthesis Performance
Learn how high-pressure autoclaves enhance BiVO4 catalyst crystallinity, interfacial bonding, and charge transfer during hydrothermal synthesis.
Why Is It Necessary To Use Pressure-Maintaining Dies Or Fixtures? Ensure Solid-State Battery Interface Stability
Learn why pressure-maintaining dies are essential for all-solid-state battery testing to prevent delamination and maintain ion transport channels.
Why Are Silver Or Platinum Liners Utilized In Gan Synthesis? Protecting Purity And Autoclave Integrity
Learn why silver and platinum liners are essential in ammonothermal GaN synthesis to prevent corrosion and ensure crystal purity in autoclaves.
What Is The Function Of A Ptfe-Lined High-Pressure Reactor In Niti Alloy Leaching? Enhance Purity And Efficiency
Learn how PTFE-lined high-pressure reactors facilitate NiTi alloy leaching by providing corrosion resistance and extreme reaction conditions.
How Do High-Purity Alumina Washers Function In Electrochemical Tests? Ensure Isolation In Supercritical Water Research
Learn how high-purity alumina washers provide essential electrical isolation and data integrity for electrochemical testing in supercritical water.
How Do Three-Dimensional Metal Foam Cathodes Improve Metal Electrowinning Efficiency? Triple Your Deposition Rates
Discover how 3D metal foam cathodes boost electrowinning efficiency with 14x larger surface area and 3x faster deposition than planar cathodes.
What Are The Primary Roles Of A Proton Exchange Membrane (Pem) In A Dual-Chamber Mfc? Enhance Your Fuel Cell Efficiency
Learn how the PEM acts as a physical barrier and ionic conduit in dual-chamber MFCs to prevent chemical shorts and maintain electrical neutrality.
How Does A Standard Electrolytic Cell Ensure Accuracy In Her Testing? Achieve Reliable Sno2/Mos2 Catalyst Performance
Learn how three-electrode electrolytic cells provide precise potential control and accurate overpotential measurements for HER catalyst testing.
What Is The Function Of A Stainless Steel Electrolytic Cell In Esw Testing? Ensure Precise Ionic Liquid Analysis
Learn how stainless steel electrodes act as inert blocking current collectors to accurately define the voltage limits of ionic liquids.
Why Are Anaerobic Glove Boxes And Nitrogen Purging Systems Required For Srb Experiments? Ensure Optimal Oxygen Exclusion
Learn why anaerobic glove boxes and nitrogen purging are essential for SRB-driven cadmium wastewater treatment by maintaining low ORP environments.
What Role Do Graphite Foil And Rigid Carbon Plate Fixtures Play In Llzo Sintering? Achieve Precise Material Stability
Learn how graphite foil and carbon plates stabilize porous LLZO films by preventing warping and lithium loss during high-temperature sintering.
What Is The Primary Function Of A Cation Exchange Membrane? Optimize Cu-Cl Cycle Efficiency And Longevity
Learn how Cation Exchange Membranes (CEM) drive hydrogen production in the Cu-Cl cycle by conducting protons while blocking copper crossover.
Why Are Zirconia Grinding Jars Necessary For Solid Electrolyte Powders? Ensure High Purity & Ionic Conductivity
Learn why zirconia media is essential for milling solid electrolytes to prevent metallic contamination and ensure peak battery performance.
What Is The Function Of An Industrial-Grade 316 Stainless Steel Autoclave? Master Pwr Secondary Circuit Simulation
Learn how 316 stainless steel autoclaves simulate PWR secondary circuits to test Alloy 690TT durability and corrosion under extreme conditions.
What Is The Function Of Graphite Electrodes In Eaops For Pvc Microplastics? Enhance Degradation With In Situ Radicals
Learn how graphite electrodes act as cathodes in EAOPs to generate hydroxyl radicals for efficient PVC dechlorination and carbon chain degradation.
How Does A High-Pressure Reactor Facilitate The Hydrothermal Synthesis Of Fe3O4@Sio2-Nh2@Cuo/Zno? Expert Insights
Learn how high-pressure reactors enable hydrothermal synthesis of Fe3O4 composites by optimizing solubility and interface bonding.
What Is The Primary Function Of A High-Temperature Gasification Reactor In Biomass-To-Hydrogen? Maximize Hydrogen Yield
Learn how high-temperature gasification reactors transform biomass into hydrogen-rich syngas through precise thermochemical bond breaking.
What Role Does A High-Pressure Reactor Play In Shs? Achieve Precise Manganese-Doped Max Phase Synthesis
Learn how high-pressure reactors stabilize SHS processes by suppressing volatilization and ensuring phase purity in MAX phase powder synthesis.
What Is The Role Of An Anion Exchange Membrane (Aem)? Boost Safety And Efficiency In Photoelectrochemical Systems
Learn how AEMs act as critical gatekeepers, preventing hazardous gas mixing while ensuring high coulombic efficiency through selective ion transport.
What Conditions Does A Hydrothermal Reactor Provide For Mesoporous Hydroxyapatite? Achieve Precise Powder Synthesis
Learn how high-pressure hydrothermal reactors create the ideal environment for uniform nucleation and mesoporous structure control.
What Is The Specific Function Of An Autoclave With A Ptfe Liner? Enhance Biomass Carbonization Efficiency
Learn how PTFE-lined autoclaves protect equipment and ensure hydrochar purity during hydrothermal carbonization of biomass materials.
What Are The Advantages Of Using Dimensionally Stable Anodes (Dsa)? Enhance Reactor Efficiency And Durability
Learn how Dimensionally Stable Anodes (DSA) improve electrochemical reactors through corrosion resistance and reduced overpotential for organic degradation.
Why Are High-Precision Temperature Controllers And K-Type Thermocouples Essential For Metformin Oxidative Cleavage?
Learn why precise thermal regulation and K-type thermocouples are vital for Metformin oxidative cleavage and kinetic modeling accuracy.
What Is The Primary Function Of A High-Pressure Reactor In Biomass Htl? Unlock Bio-Oil Potential
Learn how high-pressure reactors enable Biomass Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) by transforming water into a powerful solvent for bio-oil production.
How Does A High-Pressure Hydrothermal Reactor Facilitate Waste Mushroom Substrate Utilization? Boost Hydrochar Yields
Learn how high-pressure reactors convert mushroom waste into hydrochar via thermochemical reactions like dehydration and polymerization.
What Core Function Does An Autoclave Serve In Hphs Testing For Ceramics? Validate Material Durability At 28 Mpa
Learn how HPHS autoclaves simulate extreme conditions (28 MPa) to test the chemical stability and mechanical integrity of advanced ceramic materials.
What Requirements Must High-Pressure Autoclaves Meet For Nanoparticle Encapsulation? Achieve Precision Growth
Learn the essential technical requirements for high-pressure autoclaves in core-shell nanoparticle synthesis, from thermal precision to liners.
What Role Does A Quartz Fiber Filter Play In A Continuous Flow Catalytic Reactor? Enhance Bed Stability & Flow
Learn how Quartz Fiber Filters stabilize catalyst beds, prevent material loss, and eliminate mass transfer gradients in flow reactors.
What Are The Process Advantages Of Combining High-Speed Shear Systems With Chemical Catalysts? Maximize Biomass Yield
Discover how combining high-speed shear with chemical catalysts creates a synergistic effect for superior lignocellulosic biomass pretreatment.
What Protective Roles Does A Gas Washing Bottle Serve In A Sulfidation Reaction System? Ensure Safety And Purity
Learn how gas washing bottles act as chemical scrubbers and pneumatic barriers to neutralize toxic gases and prevent oxidation in sulfidation systems.
Why Is A High-Pressure Hydrothermal Reactor Critical For Carbon Xerogels? Unlock Superior Electrode Performance
Learn how high-pressure reactors control pore architecture and surface area during carbon xerogel synthesis for high-performance supercapacitors.
Why Are Zirconia (Zro2) Grinding Balls And Jars Preferred For Li3Ps4-Lii Glass Electrolytes? Ensure Purity & Performance
Discover why high-density, inert zirconia media is essential for the mechanochemical synthesis of high-purity Li3PS4-LiI glass electrolytes.
What Is The Purpose Of Boric Acid Treatment In Graphite Anode Repair? Enhance Anode Performance And Structural Integrity
Learn how boric acid treatment repairs graphite anode defects, enhances conductivity, and boosts lithium-ion diffusion via thermal processing.
What Experimental Environment Do High-Temperature And High-Pressure Autoclaves Provide For Biofuel Research?
Discover how autoclaves create subcritical environments (240-310°C, 40-110 bar) to simulate SMSW liquefaction and test material corrosion.
What Is The Role Of A High-Pressure Static Autoclave In Pwr Coolant Corrosion Experiments? Essential Nuclear Testing
Learn how high-pressure static autoclaves simulate PWR environments at 350°C and 16.5 MPa to validate nuclear material durability and oxidation.
What Conditions Does A Dynamic Autoclave Provide For Pwr Corrosion Testing? Simulate Extreme Reactor Environments
Learn how dynamic autoclaves simulate PWR environments using 14 MPa pressure, 310°C temperature, and active water chemistry control.
Why Are High-Pressure Reactors Essential For Recovering Rare Earth Elements? Maximize Yields From Waste Lamp Phosphors
Learn how high-pressure reactors enable high-temperature MSA leaching to recover rare earth elements like terbium from waste lamp phosphors.
Why Are The Design Pressure And Temperature Ranges Of High-Pressure Autoclaves Critical For Biomass Htl Processes?
Learn why 250–450°C and 100–350 bar are vital for subcritical and supercritical water states in biomass hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL).
Why Is A High-Pressure Hydrothermal Reactor Used For Sio2@Cuo Synthesis? Engineering Superhydrophobic Core-Shell Structures
Learn how high-pressure reactors enable heterogeneous nucleation and hierarchical growth for SiO2@CuO core-shell particles at 200 °C.
How Do Laboratory-Scale High-Pressure Reactors Facilitate Htl Of Mixed Plastic Waste? Unlock Efficient Recycling
Learn how high-pressure reactors and autoclaves use subcritical water to depolymerize mixed plastic waste into valuable hydrocarbons without sorting.
How Does The Surface Area And Geometry Of A Hydrothermal Reactor Affect The Formation Of Magnéli Phase Titanium Suboxide?
Learn how reactor geometry and surface area influence convection, heat conduction, and phase purity in Magnéli phase titanium suboxide synthesis.
Why Are Zirconia (Zro2) Grinding Jars And Balls Essential For Sulfide Solid Electrolytes? Achieve Peak Ionic Purity
Discover why Zirconia grinding media is the industry standard for sulfide solid electrolyte synthesis, ensuring purity and mechanical efficiency.
How Does Rapid Decompression In Afex Affect Biomass Quality? Unlock Maximum Surface Area For Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Learn how rapid decompression in AFEX physically disrupts biomass structure to increase surface area and enhance enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency.
What Are The Advantages Of Using Zirconia Grinding Jars? Achieve High-Purity Micronization With Zero Contamination
Learn how zirconia grinding media's high density and wear resistance ensure efficient powder refinement and sample purity for waste simulants.
Do Cvd Diamonds Pass A Diamond Tester? Yes, And Here's Why It's A Real Diamond.
CVD diamonds pass standard testers because they are chemically identical to natural diamonds. Learn how to verify origin and quality.
Why Are Zirconia Grinding Jars And Balls Necessary For Sulfide Solid Electrolytes? Essential For Purity & Performance
Discover why zirconia grinding media is critical for synthesizing sulfide solid electrolytes, ensuring purity and high electrochemical stability.
Why Is An Electrolytic Unit Equipped With A Graphite Anode Utilized During The Molten Salt Purification Process?
Learn how electrolytic units with graphite anodes remove nickel and metallic impurities from molten salt to ensure pure corrosion research baselines.
What Are The Advantages Of Zirconia (Zro2) For Cellulose Reduction? Ensure Peak Purity And High-Energy Milling Efficiency
Unlock the benefits of Zirconia grinding media: High density for tough cellulose fracturing and extreme wear resistance for contamination-free results.
Why Are Autoclaves Utilized For The Hydrothermal Synthesis Of Core-Shell Pcms? Achieving Superior Shell Integrity
Learn how high-pressure autoclaves enable the hydrothermal synthesis of dense, leak-proof core-shell phase change materials with long cycle lives.
How Is Film Thickness Controlled In Evaporation? Achieve Nanometer Precision With Quartz Crystal Monitoring
Learn how quartz crystal monitors enable real-time, nanometer-scale film thickness control in evaporation processes through precise mass-frequency measurements.
How Do You Measure A Leak? From Simple Drips To Critical Gas Leaks
Learn the core methods for quantifying liquid and gas leaks, including pressure decay, mass flow, and tracer gas techniques for safety and cost control.
What Are The Hazards Of Kbr? Avoid Procedural Errors That Ruin Your Lab Results
Learn the real hazards of KBr in the lab: from mild chemical irritation to procedural pitfalls that compromise IR spectroscopy data integrity.
How Strong Is Dental Ceramic? Discover Materials Stronger Than Natural Tooth Enamel
Dental ceramics like zirconia offer flexural strength up to 1200 MPa, making them 10x stronger than natural enamel. Learn about material selection for durable restorations.
Why Use Gold For Sputtering? Unlock Unmatched Conductivity And Corrosion Resistance
Discover why gold sputtering is ideal for high-performance applications. Learn about its superior conductivity, corrosion resistance, and durable thin films.
What Is The Core Function Of A High-Pressure Static Autoclave In Pwr Simulation? Precise Material Validation
Learn how high-pressure static autoclaves replicate 320°C/11.3 MPa PWR environments to study material corrosion and oxide film growth.
How Do High-Pressure And High-Temperature Reactors Ensure The Effective Treatment Of Lignocellulosic Wastewater In Wao?
Learn how high-pressure and high-temperature reactors optimize Wet Air Oxidation (WAO) to break down complex lignocellulosic wastewater efficiently.
How Do High-Pressure Hydrothermal Reactors Facilitate The Synthesis Of Mesoporous Hydroxyapatite? Precision Engineering
Discover how high-pressure hydrothermal reactors enable precise synthesis of mesoporous hydroxyapatite powders with uniform molybdate integration.
Why Are Zirconia Grinding Jars And Balls Required For Sulfide Electrolytes? Ensure Purity & Energy For Battery Research
Discover why zirconia is essential for sulfide solid-state electrolytes, preventing contamination while providing high impact for synthesis.
What Is The Function Of A High-Pressure Hydrothermal Reactor In Coral Conversion? Optimize Hap Synthesis Today
Learn how high-pressure hydrothermal reactors drive the conversion of coral into hydroxyapatite through ion exchange and structural transformation.
How Does A High-Pressure Reactor Contribute To The Synthesis Of Mesoporous Hydroxyapatite? Precision Hydrothermal Engineering
Learn how high-pressure reactors enable supercritical states to control the crystallinity and mesoporous structure of hydroxyapatite powder.
What Function Do Alumina Ceramic Plates Serve As Supports In The Preparation Of Molecular Sieve Membranes?
Learn how alumina ceramic plates act as a structural backbone for molecular sieve membranes, enhancing strength and reducing system pressure drop.
What Is The Function Of A High-Pressure Laboratory Reactor In Alkaline Digestion? Boost Arsenic Conversion Rates
Learn how high-pressure reactors optimize arsenic-bearing copper ore digestion by exceeding boiling points and ensuring safe chemical containment.
What Is The Purpose Of Using A High-Pressure Hydrothermal Autoclave In The Synthesis Of Mxene/Ferrite Composites?
Learn how high-pressure autoclaves facilitate in situ growth of magnetic nanoparticles on MXene to enhance EMI shielding performance.
Why Are High-Precision Constant Temperature Shakers Essential For Pcb Degradation? Ensure Precise Research Results
Learn why constant temperature shakers and rotary stirrers are vital for accurate PCB degradation kinetics and reproducible lab data.
What Environmental Conditions Must A Ball Mill Jar Meet? Prevent Fe3Al Oxidation With Advanced Sealing
Learn the essential conditions for ball mill jars to prevent oxidation in Fe3Al production, focusing on vacuum and high-purity argon environments.
How Does Thermal Decomposition In Furnaces Influence Moctas? Optimize Anode Durability And Conductivity
Learn how precise thermal decomposition in high-temperature furnaces transforms precursors into high-performance oxide coatings for MOCTAs.
Why Are Zirconia Grinding Jars And Balls Selected For Lnmo Treatment? Ensure Purity & Efficiency In Battery Research
Discover why zirconia is essential for LNMO milling, offering zero metallic contamination and high wear resistance for 120-hour processing.
Why Is Precise Temperature Control Critical For Cdmn4(Hpo4)2(Po4)2·4H2O? Master Your High-Pressure Reactor Synthesis
Learn why temperature precision is vital for hydrothermal synthesis of Hureaulite-type structures in high-pressure reactors to ensure crystal quality.
Why Use Zirconia Grinding Kits For Latp Synthesis? Ensure High Purity And Ionic Conductivity
Learn why zirconia grinding media is essential for LATP solid electrolytes to prevent contamination and optimize particle size for sintering.
Why Are High-Strength Pressure Tubes Used For Seaweed Hydrolysis? Unlock Efficient Biomass Degradation
Discover how high-strength pressure tubes manage vapor pressure and accelerate reaction kinetics during seaweed acid or base catalyzed hydrolysis.
What Role Does A High-Vacuum Reactor Play In Ti-Al-Y Alloy Synthesis? Master High-Temperature Hydride Processing
Learn how high-vacuum reactors drive dehydrogenation and prevent oxidation at 1200°C for pure Ti-Al-Y alloy synthesis using hydride technology.
What Conditions Do Laboratory High-Pressure Reactors Provide For Htc? Optimize Your Biochar Production Processes
Learn how high-pressure reactors create subcritical water environments for HTC, enabling efficient biomass-to-biochar conversion without pre-drying.
Why Use Zirconia Grinding Jars For Fluoride Solid Electrolytes? Ensure High Purity & Electrochemical Stability
Discover why Zirconia (ZrO2) is essential for synthesizing fluoride solid electrolytes, offering unmatched purity and wear resistance.
How Does The Selection Of Grinding Media Materials Influence Mechanochemical Reactions? Optimize Energy And Catalysis
Learn how grinding media density and chemistry, from stainless steel to zirconia, dictate energy transfer and reaction pathways in mechanochemistry.
What Physicochemical Advantages Do Supercritical Fluid Reactors Provide? Unlock Enhanced Lignocellulose Processing
Discover how supercritical fluid reactors overcome mass transfer limits in biomass through liquid-like density and gas-like transport properties.
What Is The Function Of A High-Pressure Reactor In The Hydrothermal Treatment Of Wood? Enhancing Wood Permeability
Learn how high-pressure reactors optimize wood through pore clearing, color modification, and nanoparticle synthesis for superior durability.
What Roles Do Reactors And Ptfe Liners Play In Zirconium Dioxide Synthesis? Enhance Your Nanoparticle Purity
Learn how stainless steel reactors and PTFE liners work together to manage pressure and ensure chemical purity in hydrothermal synthesis.
What Technical Specifications Are Required For High-Pressure Reactors? Expert Engineering For Biomass Htl Success
Discover the essential material, pressure (25 MPa), and temperature (360°C) specs for reactors used in hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass.
What Is The Primary Function Of A High-Pressure Reactor In Subcritical Water Extraction (Swe)? Optimize Green Extraction
Learn how high-pressure reactors enable subcritical water extraction by maintaining water as a liquid at 120-180°C for organic compound recovery.
Why Are Zirconia Grinding Jars And Balls Preferred For Recycled Graphite? Optimize Purity And Efficiency
Discover why zirconia is the gold standard for recycling battery graphite, offering high density and zero metallic contamination.
Why Are Zirconia Grinding Balls Preferred For Lslbo Powder Preparation? Ensure High Purity And Ionic Conductivity
Discover why zirconia grinding media is essential for LSLBO synthesis, ensuring zero metallic contamination and superior particle refinement.
Why Is A Constant Filling Ratio Maintained In Cfrp Decomposition? Ensure Data Validity In High-Pressure Reactors
Learn why keeping a constant solvent-to-reactor ratio is essential for isolating variables and ensuring reproducibility in CFRP recycling.
Why Are Dimensionally Stable Anodes (Dsa) Preferred For Indium Electrowinning? Ensure High-Purity Results.
Learn why DSAs and high-purity graphite are essential for indium electrowinning to prevent contamination and optimize energy efficiency.
How Do Ion-Exchange Membranes Prevent H2O2 Decomposition? Boost Yield And Efficiency In Flow Cells
Learn how PEM and AEM membranes act as physical barriers to prevent hydrogen peroxide migration and oxidative decomposition in flow cell reactors.
What Is The Primary Function Of Porous Ceramic Supports? Ensuring Structural Integrity In Zeolite Membranes
Learn how porous ceramic supports provide mechanical strength and influence crystal adhesion in MFI-type zeolite membrane preparation.
What Functions Do High-Purity Quartz Windows Perform In Solar Reactors? Optimize Energy For Thermochemical Efficiency
Learn how high-purity quartz windows act as transparent pressure boundaries, maximizing energy transfer and preventing re-oxidation in reactors.
What Is The Role Of A High-Pressure Rolling System In Ceramic Mfc Chassis? Ensure Uniformity And Peak Performance
Learn how high-pressure rolling systems ensure uniform thickness, mechanical strength, and ion conduction in ceramic Microbial Fuel Cell chassis.
Why Are Hydrothermal Synthesis Autoclaves Used For Mesoporous Ha Catalysts? Engineering Superior Catalytic Efficiency
Learn how hydrothermal synthesis autoclaves enable the precise engineering of mesoporous hydroxyapatite (HA) catalysts through controlled pressure.
Why Are High-Pressure Hydrothermal Reactors Essential For Producing Hydrochar From Sms? Unlock High-Value Bio-Refining
Learn how high-pressure reactors convert spent mushroom substrate into hydrochar through subcritical water reactions and deep carbonization.
What Is The Purpose Of An Anion Exchange Membrane (Aem) Or Pem? Enhance Electrochemical Efficiency
Understand how AEM and PEM membranes prevent product re-oxidation and maintain charge balance in electrochemical flow cells.
What Are The Advantages Of Using Coated Titanium Mesh As A Dsa? Ensure High-Purity Nickel-Rhenium Alloy Electrodeposition
Discover why coated titanium mesh is the ideal DSA for nickel-rhenium alloys, offering chemical stability, purity, and uniform current distribution.
What Is The Necessity Of Using An End-Over-End Rotator In Chlorendic Acid Reduction? Ensure Kinetic Accuracy With Zvi
Discover why end-over-end rotators are essential for ZVI kinetic experiments to eliminate mass transfer resistance and ensure accurate data.
What Is The Function Of A Proton Exchange Membrane In A Pec Cell? Enhancing Co2 Reduction Safety And Efficiency
Learn how the proton exchange membrane (PEM) acts as a molecular gatekeeper to ensure safety and high product purity in PEC carbon dioxide reduction.
What Is The Function Of A Pem In An Mfc? Optimize Proton Migration & Power Efficiency
Learn the vital role of Proton Exchange Membranes (PEM) like Nafion and PTFE in Microbial Fuel Cells to prevent short circuits and boost output.
What Are The Benefits Of Using An Induction Heating Source For The Direct Conversion Of Methane Into Hydrogen?
Unlock 90% heating efficiency in methane-to-hydrogen conversion using induction heating with metal catalyst nanopowders for superior product yield.