Knowledge Battery research

Battery research

Explore our comprehensive guides on battery research methodologies, material science innovations, and laboratory best practices for next-gen energy storage.

Dive into our extensive collection of resources dedicated to the advancing field of battery research and energy storage technology. This category features in-depth technical articles, tutorials on cell fabrication, and expert analyses of next-generation materials like solid-state electrolytes and advanced electrodes. Whether you are optimizing coin cell assembly or exploring new characterization techniques, our insights are designed to support researchers in achieving precise and reproducible results in the laboratory.

All Questions

How Does Ultra-Low Temperature Laboratory Equipment Support Reliability Testing For Batteries In Extreme Cold?

Learn how ultra-low temperature equipment simulates -27°C environments to identify lattice deformation and prevent battery electrode cracking.

What Is The Function Of A Constant Temperature Chamber In Lithium-Ion Battery Calendar Aging? Gain Precise Test Data

Learn how high-precision constant temperature test chambers isolate thermal variables to accurately model battery degradation and SEI growth.

Why Are Molten Salt Electrolytes Important For Lithium-Air Batteries? High-Performance Consumables For Energy Storage

Learn how molten salt electrolytes enhance Lithium-Air battery research by improving safety, stability, and reaction kinetics at high temperatures.

What Are The Main Applications Of A Laboratory Vacuum Drying Oven In Battery R&D? Optimize High-Energy Density Battery Performance

Discover how laboratory vacuum drying ovens eliminate moisture and solvents to ensure the safety and longevity of lithium-ion and thermal batteries.

What Is The Purpose Of Introducing High-Purity Argon For Ni-Based Hydroxide Precursors? Ensure Material Stoichiometry

Learn how high-purity argon protection prevents nickel oxidation (Ni²⁺ to Ni³⁺) and ensures phase purity in aluminum-gradient precursors.

What Role Does A Glove Box Play In The Assembly Of All-Solid-State Lithium-Sulfur Batteries? Ensure High-Purity Cells

Learn how glove boxes protect sulfide electrolytes and lithium anodes from moisture and oxygen to ensure high-performance solid-state battery assembly.

How Does A Glove Box Provide Environmental Protection For Lithium Battery Assembly? Ensure Pristine Battery Performance

Learn how glove boxes use inert argon to maintain <0.1 ppm oxygen and moisture, protecting lithium batteries from oxidation and contamination.

What Is The Function Of A Coin Cell Crimper In Solid-State Sodium Battery Research? Ensure Data Integrity And Sealing

Learn how a coin cell crimper ensures interfacial contact and hermetic sealing for accurate solid-state sodium battery evaluation and research.

Why Is It Necessary To Assemble Solid-State Sodium Batteries (Ssb) Inside An Inert Gas Glovebox? Ensure Battery Integrity

Learn why an inert gas glovebox is critical for SSB assembly to prevent metallic sodium degradation and ensure interface stability.

What Role Does A Vacuum Drying Oven Play In Spe And Cathode Preparation? Ensure Battery Purity & Performance

Discover how vacuum drying ovens eliminate solvents and moisture to prevent interface impedance and side reactions in SPE and cathode fabrication.

What Tools Are Used For Battery Research And Material Processing? Enhance Your Lab's Material Prep With Kintek

Explore essential lab equipment for battery research, material homogenization, and particle size reduction for superior research results.

Why Are Specialized Battery Research Tools Necessary For Evaluating Recycled Graphite? Ensure Material Validation

Learn why precision tools like hydraulic presses and crimpers are essential for validating the performance of regenerated battery-grade graphite.

What Is The Purpose Of Boric Acid Treatment In Graphite Anode Repair? Enhance Anode Performance And Structural Integrity

Learn how boric acid treatment repairs graphite anode defects, enhances conductivity, and boosts lithium-ion diffusion via thermal processing.

What Type Of Battery Test Fixture Is Required For Eis Composite Cathode Studies? Optimize Your Microstructure Analysis

Learn why a specialized pressurized battery test fixture with a blocking electrode configuration is essential for accurate EIS composite cathode data.

What Is The Function Of A 2032-Type Coin Cell Case In Solid-State Battery Testing? Optimize Interfacial Connectivity

Learn how 2032 coin cell cases provide vital hermetic sealing and stack pressure to ensure reliable electrochemical testing for solid-state batteries.

How Do Liquid Nitrogen And Vacuum Equipment Contribute To Safety? Expert Battery Discharge Protocols

Learn how liquid nitrogen and vacuum equipment synergize to neutralize volatile chemicals and prevent thermal runaway in battery discharge.

Why Is An Inert Gas Glove Box Required For Mg-Y-Cu Alloy Powder Loading? Ensure Safety And Amorphous Alloy Purity

Learn why Mg-Y-Cu alloys require an argon-filled glove box (<1 ppm O2/H2O) to prevent violent oxidation and ensure material purity during milling.

What Role Does A Coin Cell Crimping Machine Play In The Preparation Of Solid-State Battery Samples? Enhancing Interfaces

Learn how coin cell crimping machines facilitate ion transport and reduce impedance through precise stack pressure and hermetic sealing.

What Function Does Ultrasonic Dispersion Equipment Serve In Composite Electrolytes? Ensure Slurry Homogeneity

Learn how ultrasonic dispersion breaks ceramic agglomerates and uses cavitation to optimize electrolyte slurry performance.

How Can High-Precision Pressure Equipment Be Used For Battery Failure Analysis? Isolate Mechanical Vs Chemical Decay

Learn how high-precision pressure equipment simulates interfacial contact to distinguish between mechanical and chemical failure in ASSB research.

Why Is A Battery Test Fixture With Pressure Control Functionality Necessary For All-Solid-State Battery Testing?

Learn why pressure-controlled fixtures are vital for all-solid-state batteries to maintain ionic pathways and manage material volume changes.

Why Are Zirconia Grinding Jars And Balls Required For Sulfide Electrolytes? Ensure Purity & Energy For Battery Research

Discover why zirconia is essential for sulfide solid-state electrolytes, preventing contamination while providing high impact for synthesis.

What Is The Role Of Magnetic Stirring And Ultrasonic Treatment In Zn–Wo3? Achieve Perfect Nanoparticle Dispersion

Learn how magnetic stirring and ultrasonic treatment prevent WO3 agglomeration to create uniform, high-performance Zn–WO3 composite electrolytes.

Why Is Precise Control Critical For Li6Ps5Cl Synthesis? Master Temperature & Atmosphere For Solid Electrolytes

Learn how precise furnace control optimizes sulfur chemical potential and ionic conductivity in argyrodite-type solid electrolytes like Li6PS5Cl.

Why Is A 70°C Conditioning Treatment Necessary For Solid-State Batteries? Ensure Reliable Interfacial Contact

Learn why 70°C thermal conditioning is essential for solid-state lithium metal batteries to reduce resistance and prevent delamination.

What Is The Significance Of Precise Temperature Control In Melt Infiltration? Achieve High-Performance Li-Alloy Electrodes

Learn how precise 350°C temperature control ensures fluidity and chemical homogeneity during the melt infiltration of lithium-rich alloy electrodes.

What Is The Primary Function Of A Vacuum Oven In The Preparation Of Lifepo4 Cathode Electrodes? Optimize Battery Life

Learn how vacuum ovens ensure LiFePO4 quality by removing NMP solvents and moisture while preventing oxidation through deep drying processes.

What Role Does The Grinding Process Play In Lagp-Il Hybrid Pastes? Optimize Your Battery Intermediate Layers

Learn how the grinding process creates a quasi-solid gel through shear force, ensuring high ionic conductivity and stability for LAGP-IL pastes.

Why Evaluate High-Nickel Cathode Thermal Safety With High-Sensitivity Gas Analysis? Ensure Battery Stability.

Learn why high-sensitivity pressure scanning is essential for monitoring gas evolution and oxidative activity in high-nickel cathode materials.

How Are Silver Mesh And Gold Wire Used In Bzy20 Eis Testing? Enhance Conductivity Precision In Proton Ceramics

Learn how silver mesh and gold wire serve as critical interfaces in BZY20 EIS testing to achieve accurate proton conductivity measurements.

Why Must Cold-Sintered Bzy20 Samples Undergo Low-Temperature Heat Treatment? Prevent Structural Failure

Learn why a 200°C box furnace step is vital for BZY20 ceramics to remove residual water and prevent explosive cracking during final sintering.

Why Is Multi-Stage Differential Pressure Control Required? Optimize Sulfide Solid-State Battery Lamination

Learn why multi-stage pressure is vital for sulfide half-cells: densify cathodes and protect electrolytes for superior battery performance.

Why Is A Thermostatic Oven Required For Long-Term Cycling Tests Of Lithium-Ion Batteries? Ensure Accurate Data Trends

Discover why thermostatic ovens are essential for Li-ion battery cycling, stabilizing ionic conductivity and eliminating environmental noise.

Why Is Long-Term Vacuum Drying Necessary For Ps-B-Poegma Solid-State Electrolyte Membranes? Ensure Peak Battery Performance

Learn why 48h vacuum drying at 60°C is vital for PS-b-POEGMA membranes to remove THF and moisture, preventing parasitic reactions in batteries.

What Is The Purpose Of Heating And Drying Equipment In Peo-Based Cathode Fabrication? Optimize Ion Transport Channels

Learn how ovens and heating plates drive solvent evaporation to create dense, uniform PEO-based composite layers for high-performance batteries.

What Is The Role Of A Customized Pressure Cell In Testing Battery Performance? Ensure Stable High-Areal Capacity Cycling

Learn how customized pressure cells apply mechanical force to maintain particle contact and prevent resistance in high-loading battery testing.

Why Use An Ar/H2 Mixture For Vpo4 Intermediate Preparation? Mastering Reducing Environments For Battery Synthesis

Learn how an Ar/H2 atmosphere furnace prevents vanadium oxidation and ensures phase purity in VPO4 and Na3(VOPO4)2F synthesis.

What Is The Role Of Cr2016 Coin Cell Components In Li2Mnsio4/C Evaluation? Optimize Your Battery Research Results

Learn how CR2016 coin cell components act as the structural vessel and electrical interface for accurate Li2MnSiO4/C electrochemical testing.

Why Is A Vacuum Drying Oven Necessary For Li2Mnsio4/C Battery Electrodes? Ensure Stability And Performance.

Learn how vacuum drying ovens remove moisture and NMP solvents from Li2MnSiO4/C electrodes to prevent corrosion and ensure battery longevity.

Why Is Precision Mixing And Shaping Equipment Required For Composite Cathodes In Solid-State Batteries?

Learn how precision mixing and hydraulic presses optimize the mesostructure of solid-state battery cathodes for maximum ionic conductivity.

What Are The Requirements For Heating Equipment In Large-Scale Oxide Solid Electrolyte Production? Scaling With Precision

Discover why industrial-grade sintering furnaces are vital for oxide solid electrolyte production, focusing on thermal efficiency and uniformity.

Why Do Polymer Electrolyte Cycling Tests Require Heating? Optimize Peo Performance At 50°C-70°C

Learn why heating to 50°C-70°C is essential for polymer electrolyte cycling to boost ionic conductivity and ensure reliable electrochemical data.

Why Are Gloveboxes And Hydraulic Pellet Presses Required For Lithium-Sulfur Battery Assembly? Key Tools For Efficiency

Learn why inert atmosphere gloveboxes and hydraulic presses are essential for Li-S battery material integrity and cathode electrical conductivity.

What Function Does A Cr2032 Button Cell Case Serve In Testing Solid-State Sodium Batteries? Optimize Your Lab Results

Learn how CR2032 cases provide environmental isolation and critical interfacial pressure for Beta-Al2O3 solid-state sodium battery evaluation.

How Does A Split Coin Cell Solve Li6Ps5Cl Testing Issues? Master Pressure Control For Solid-State Research

Learn how split coin cells and external loading devices solve Li6PS5Cl battery testing instabilities by maintaining constant interface contact.

What Are The Core Functions Of Zinc-Air Battery Test Molds? Evaluate Catalyst Durability & Cycling Efficiency

Learn how specialized zinc-air battery test molds evaluate bifunctional catalysts through real-time voltage monitoring and long-term cycling.

Why Is 120 Mpa Pressure Required For Lithium Anode Attachment? Achieve Atomic-Level Solid-State Battery Interfaces

Learn why 120 MPa from a hydraulic press is vital to eliminate voids and reduce impedance when attaching lithium anodes to solid electrolytes.

Purpose Of Copper Foil In Sodium Battery Testing: Key For Measuring Coulombic Efficiency And Safety

Learn how copper foil serves as the essential substrate in sodium metal battery testing to monitor plating, stripping, and dendrite formation.

What Is The Purpose Of Applying Specific Pressure To Hse Membranes? Optimize Battery Energy Density And Resistance

Learn why hydraulic pressure is critical for densifying Hybrid Solid Electrolyte membranes to reduce resistance and boost battery performance.

How Does Heating Equipment Function During The Assembly Of Li/Llz/Lgvo/Lco Batteries? Optimize Your Solid-State Cells

Learn how heating Li/LLZ/LGVO/LCO batteries to 165°C after sealing optimizes interfaces and reduces resistance in all-solid-state assembly.

Why Is Initial Calcination At 600 °C Necessary For Bi-Doped Membrane Powders? Prevent Defects & Ensure Density

Learn why 600 °C calcination in a box furnace is essential for purifying Bi-doped oxygen transport membranes and preventing cracks during sintering.

What Role Does A High-Temperature Annealing Furnace Play In The Crystallization Process Of Li-Argyrodite? Find Out Here

Learn how high-temperature annealing transforms amorphous precursors into high-conductivity Li-argyrodite electrolytes for solid-state batteries.

Why Is A High-Power Horn-Type Ultrasonic Homogenizer Necessary For Pem Electrolyzer Ink? Unlock Peak Catalyst Dispersion

Learn how high-power ultrasonic homogenizers use cavitation to break catalyst agglomerates and optimize PEM electrolyzer ink stability.

What Is The Significance Of The Ultra-High Pressure In Solid-State Battery Assembly? Achieve Atomic-Level Contact

Learn how 360 MPa of pressure from hydraulic presses eliminates interface impedance by bonding lithium anodes to solid-state electrolytes.

Why Must High-Temperature Performance Testing For All-Solid-State Batteries Use Precise Chambers? Optimize Asb Performance

Learn how precise temperature control activates ionic conductivity and thermo-mechanical coupling in all-solid-state battery testing.

What Is The Primary Role Of Standardized Coin Cell Cases In Li/Lsth/Li Assembly? Ensure Precise Battery Testing Results

Learn how standardized coin cell cases provide mechanical support, hermetic sealing, and constant pressure for accurate Li/LSTH/Li battery testing.

Why Are Customized Pressure Test Cells Necessary For Assb Testing? Master Solid-State Battery Performance

Learn how customized pressure cells maintain solid-solid interfaces and manage volume expansion in all-solid-state battery (ASSB) research.

What Role Does Vacuum Drying Equipment Play In Sulfide Electrolyte Solvent Testing? Ensure Precise Data Integrity

Learn why vacuum drying is essential for testing sulfide solid electrolytes, preventing thermal decomposition and ensuring accurate XRD analysis.

What Is The Objective Of Using A Laboratory Hydraulic Press For Solid-State Batteries? Achieve Optimal Interface Contact

Learn how high-pressure cold pressing eliminates microscopic voids and reduces interfacial resistance in all-solid-state battery assembly.

Why Is A Laboratory Hydraulic Press Essential For Sulfide Solid Electrolyte Layers? Optimize Your Battery Research

Learn how laboratory hydraulic presses eliminate voids and maximize ionic conductivity in sulfide solid-state electrolytes through high densification.

Why Is A Post-Milling Heat Treatment Necessary For Na3Ps4 Solid Electrolytes? Unlock High Ionic Conductivity

Learn why heat treatment in a tube or muffle furnace is vital for Na3PS4 crystallization, stress relief, and maximizing ionic conductivity.

Why Is Humidity Control Critical For Pem Maintenance? Achieve Peak Performance And Longevity

Learn why precise humidity control is vital for proton exchange membrane health, preventing dehydration and flooding to ensure optimal fuel cell operation.

What Are The Procedures For Handling A Proton Exchange Membrane After Use? Ensure Longevity And Performance

Learn the step-by-step guide for proper PEM disassembly, cleaning, and storage to prevent damage and extend membrane life for fuel cells and electrolyzers.

What Contaminants Should Be Avoided During The Operation Of A Proton Exchange Membrane? Protect Your Pem From Heavy Metals & Organics

Learn how heavy metal ions and organic compounds degrade PEM performance by blocking proton transport, and discover key mitigation strategies.

What Operating Conditions Must Be Controlled When Using A Proton Exchange Membrane? Master Temperature, Humidity, And Pressure

Learn how to control temperature, humidity, and pressure for optimal PEM performance and longevity. Avoid degradation and ensure reliable operation.

How Should A Proton Exchange Membrane Be Installed? A Guide To Flawless Assembly For Peak Performance

Step-by-step guide to installing a proton exchange membrane. Learn key techniques to avoid wrinkles, ensure tight seals, and maximize device efficiency and lifespan.

What Initial Steps Are Required Before Using A New Proton Exchange Membrane? Ensure Peak Performance And Longevity

Learn the 3 critical steps for preparing a new PEM: inspection, film removal, and chemical activation. Avoid common pitfalls for reliable results.

How Should A Proton Exchange Membrane Be Stored? Protect Your Pem's Integrity And Performance

Learn the essential steps for proper PEM storage and handling to prevent chemical degradation, physical damage, and ensure optimal fuel cell performance.

What Is A Common Application For Proton Exchange Membranes In Laboratory Setups? Ensuring Precise Electrochemical Analysis

Learn how PEMs act as selective barriers in H-type cells to isolate reactions, ensure product purity, and enable accurate lab experiments.

What Is A Proton Exchange Membrane? The Selective Heart Of Hydrogen Energy Systems

Learn how a proton exchange membrane (PEM) works as a selective conductor in fuel cells & electrolyzers, enabling modern hydrogen technology.

What Procedures Should Be Followed After Using Nickel Or Copper Foam? A Guide To Reliable Reuse And Performance

Learn the essential post-use procedures for nickel or copper foam, including cleaning, performance testing, and storage to ensure material integrity and longevity.

How Should Nickel Or Copper Foam Be Handled During An Experiment? Protect Your Sample's Critical Porous Structure

Learn essential handling techniques for nickel and copper foam to prevent physical damage and operational stress, ensuring accurate experimental results.

What Procedures Should Be Followed Before Using Nickel Or Copper Foam? Ensure Optimal Performance And Reliability

Learn the essential pre-use steps for nickel and copper foam, including inspection, cleaning, and drying, to maximize surface area and prevent contamination.

What Are The Available Sizes And Thicknesses For Nickel Foam? Choose The Right Specs For Your Application

Learn about nickel foam sizes (200x300mm, 250x1000mm) and thicknesses (0.3mm-20mm) and how to select the best for batteries, catalysts, and filters.

In Which Fields Is Nickel Foam Widely Used? A Key Material For Advanced Engineering

Explore the critical applications of nickel foam in batteries, catalysis, EMI shielding, and heat exchangers due to its unique porous structure.

What Are The Characteristics Of Nickel Foam? A Guide To Its High-Performance Properties

Explore the key characteristics of nickel foam, including its high porosity, conductivity, and chemical stability for advanced applications like batteries and filtration.

How Can The Pores Of Carbon Felt Be Regenerated? Restore Performance With High-Temperature Ablation

Learn the precise method to regenerate carbon felt pores using 350°C thermal cleaning in an inert Argon atmosphere to remove contaminants and restore efficiency.

How Can The Flexibility Of Carbon Cloth Be Maintained Over Time? Preserve Mechanical Integrity With Nafion

Learn how periodic NAFION solution treatment preserves carbon cloth flexibility by reinforcing the fiber matrix against stress and brittleness.

How Can The Lifespan Of Carbon Paper Be Extended? Reinforce Edges With Epoxy For Maximum Durability

Learn how a simple epoxy edge treatment prevents cracking and fraying, significantly extending the life of carbon paper in fuel cells and lab applications.

How Should Carbon Cloth Used For High-Temperature Electrolysis Be Handled After Operation? Prevent Irreversible Oxidative Damage

Learn the critical protocol for cooling carbon cloth in an inert atmosphere to prevent combustion and ensure material integrity after high-temperature use.

What Is The Monthly Maintenance Procedure For Carbon Felt Used In Flow Batteries? Restore Power And Efficiency

Learn the step-by-step chemical regeneration procedure for carbon felt in flow batteries to prevent fouling, restore performance, and maintain efficiency.

How Should Carbon Paper Used In A Fuel Cell Be Maintained? Prevent Ptfe Degradation For Peak Performance

Learn the key maintenance step: periodic acetic acid rinsing to neutralize alkali buildup and preserve your fuel cell's carbon paper GDL.

What Precautions Should Be Taken To Prevent Contamination When Handling Carbon Materials? Protect Your Material's Integrity

Learn essential precautions for handling carbon materials to prevent chemical and physical contamination, ensuring reliable performance in your lab.

Why Should Forceful Compression Of Carbon Materials Be Avoided? Prevent Damage To Critical Porous Structures

Learn why compressing carbon materials like cloth or felt can collapse their porous structure, severely impacting performance in fuel cells and batteries.

What Are The Recommended Storage Environment Conditions For Carbon Materials? Preserve Performance And Value

Learn the essential storage conditions for carbon materials to prevent moisture absorption, chemical degradation, and ensure long-term performance in your lab.

What Are The Specific Long-Term Storage Instructions For Carbon Felt? Prevent Contamination & Ensure Performance

Learn the essential long-term storage protocols for carbon felt to prevent moisture absorption, fiber shedding, and ensure reliability in high-purity applications.

What Are The General Storage Guidelines For Carbon Materials? Protect Your Lab's Performance And Integrity

Learn essential storage guidelines for carbon materials like cloth and felt to prevent moisture damage, contamination, and ensure reliable lab results.

How Should Carbon Cloth And Carbon Paper Be Cleaned After Use? Preserve Material Integrity With Proper Care

Learn the correct method to clean carbon cloth and paper using deionized water to avoid damage and ensure reliable performance in your lab applications.

What Is A Critical Step When Using Carbon Felt In An Experiment? Ensure Complete Saturation For Maximum Efficiency

Learn why proper wetting of carbon felt is critical for eliminating insulating air bubbles and achieving accurate, efficient electrochemical results.

How Is Carbon Paper Treated For Use In Fuel Cells? The Critical Ptfe Coating For Peak Performance

Learn how PTFE coating transforms carbon paper into a hydrophobic gas diffusion layer (GDL) to prevent water flooding and ensure efficient fuel cell operation.

How Should Carbon Paper Be Handled During Cutting? Prevent Fractures With A Delicate, Precise Approach

Learn the correct techniques for cutting brittle carbon paper, including using sharp blades, slow cutting motions, and proper clamping to avoid cracks and damage.

What Precautions Should Be Taken When Cutting Carbon Cloth? Avoid Short Circuits And Ensure Device Safety

Learn essential safety steps for cutting carbon cloth to prevent fraying, short circuits, and respiratory hazards for reliable lab results.

How Can The Electrolyte Wettability Of Carbon Cloth Be Enhanced? Unlock Superior Electrochemical Performance

Learn how to improve carbon cloth electrolyte wettability via acid treatment & NAFION coating for better device efficiency, power density, and capacity.

How Should Carbon Materials Be Cleaned Before Use? Ensure Peak Performance With Proper Prep

Learn the correct way to clean carbon materials like cloth, felt, and paper before use to prevent contamination and ensure reliable results.

What General Pre-Use Checks Should Be Performed On Carbon Materials? Ensure Peak Performance And Avoid Costly Failures

Learn the essential pre-use checks for carbon materials, including visual inspection for damage and verification of temperature and humidity tolerances, to ensure reliability.

What Applications Is Carbon Felt Suitable For? Ideal For High-Performance Electrochemical Systems

Discover carbon felt's key applications in flow batteries, fuel cells, and capacitors due to its high surface area, porosity, and stable conductivity.

What Are The Key Properties Of Carbon Felt? Unlocking High-Temperature & Electrochemical Performance

Explore the essential properties of carbon felt: high porosity, large surface area, stable thermal/electrical conductivity, and low density for demanding applications.

What Is The Structure Of Carbon Felt? A Deep Dive Into Its 3D Porous Network

Explore the non-woven, porous structure of carbon felt and how its 3D fiber network enables superior thermal insulation and electrochemical performance.

What Are The Typical Uses For Carbon Paper? Powering Fuel Cells And Advanced Research

Discover the key applications of technical carbon paper, from Gas Diffusion Layers in fuel cells to current collectors and electrochemical substrates.

What Are The Material Properties Of Carbon Paper? Unlocking High Conductivity & Porosity For Your Lab

Explore the key properties of carbon paper: high porosity, excellent electrical conductivity, and gas permeability for fuel cells, batteries, and electrochemistry.