Faqs - Side Window Optical Electrolytic Electrochemical Cell

Why Are Customized Pressure Test Cells Necessary For Assb Testing? Master Solid-State Battery Performance
Learn how customized pressure cells maintain solid-solid interfaces and manage volume expansion in all-solid-state battery (ASSB) research.
What Is The Role Of A Platinum Electrode As A Counter Electrode? Ensure Data Integrity In Coating Corrosion Research
Learn why platinum electrodes are the gold standard for counter electrodes in electrochemical cells to ensure accurate corrosion research data.
What Is The Function Of A Potentiostat In Electrodeposition? Maximize Electrode Efficiency For Nitrate Reduction
Learn how high-precision potentiostats and electrolytic cells control electrode morphology and active site distribution for nitrate reduction.
How Does An Electrochemical Testing System Evaluate Mesoporous Oxide Electrodes? Precision Analysis For Battery Research
Learn how electrochemical workstations use CV and EIS to analyze storage mechanisms and kinetics in ordered mesoporous oxide battery electrodes.
Why Is Constant Temperature Control Required For Cgde? Ensure Precision In Electrolyte Conductivity Measurement
Learn why constant temperature control is vital in CGDE to neutralize Joule heating, prevent evaporation, and ensure accurate conductivity data.
What Are The Advantages Of An Electrolytic Polishing Device For Ek-181 Steel Tem Samples? Ensure Peak Sample Integrity
Discover why electrolytic polishing is essential for EK-181 steel TEM samples to preserve true dislocation density and image 5-10nm MX precipitates.
How Do Polarization Curves And Eis Help Evaluate The Effect Of Doping Elements On Heas? Enhance Your Alloy Research
Learn how polarization curves and EIS quantify the impact of doping on High-Entropy Alloys by measuring pitting potential and film stability.
What Characteristics Are Analyzed Using An Electrochemical Workstation During Eis Testing Of Solid-State Batteries?
Discover how electrochemical workstations analyze frequency response, impedance evolution, and interface stability in solid-state battery research.
What Is The Significance Of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (Eis)? Decode Kinetics & Stability In Catalysts
Learn how EIS measurements quantify resistance, visualize electron transport, and monitor interfacial stability for optimized catalyst performance.
How Do High-Pressure Reactors Ensure Electrolyzer Testing Reliability? Achieve Industrial-Grade Precision
Learn how industrial high-pressure reactors and electrolytic cells ensure reliable electrolyzer testing through precision compression and control.
What Role Does A Saturated Calomel Electrode (Sce) Play In Pipeline Steel Monitoring? Ensure Precision In Corrosion Data
Learn how the Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE) provides a stable baseline for accurate electrochemical noise monitoring in pipeline steel research.
How Do Continuous Flow Microreactors Improve Co2 Conversion? Maximize Photoelectrochemical Efficiency & Selectivity
Learn how continuous flow microreactors outperform batch systems in CO2 conversion by enhancing mass transfer and reducing diffusion limits.
How Does A Single-Granule Electrochemical Fixture Assist In Analyzing The Performance Of Individual Granules Within A Fixed Bed? Unlock Precise Particle Insights
Learn how single-granule electrochemical fixtures isolate particles to map redox potential and current density for superior reactor optimization.
What Is The Significance Of Using A 2032-Type Coin Cell Configuration? Isolate Intrinsic Graphene Performance.
Learn why the 2032-type coin cell configuration is essential for abiotic testing of graphene, isolating intrinsic electrochemical properties.
What Is The Core Function Of A Laboratory-Scale Single-Chamber Circulating Electrolytic Reactor? Optimize Al Recovery
Discover how fluid circulation in electrolytic reactors enhances aluminum recovery by optimizing mass transfer and concentration uniformity.
Why Must Battery Testing Systems Be Used With External Pressure Fixtures? Ensuring Stability In All-Solid-State Batteries
Learn why external pressure fixtures are critical for all-solid-state battery cycling to prevent delamination and maintain ionic contact.
What Is The Role Of The Near-Zero Gap Structure In A Membrane Electrode Assembly (Mea)? Enhance Efficiency Now
Learn how near-zero gap structures in MEAs minimize resistance, boost current density, and enable compact electrochemical reactor designs.
Why Is A High-Temperature Catalytic Reaction Cell Necessary For Analyzing Mcfc? Ensure Precise Fuel Cell Performance
Discover why high-temperature catalytic reaction cells are vital for MCFC electrolyte analysis by simulating real-world 923 K operating conditions.
What Are The Advantages Of Using Electrochemical Catalysis Equipment For Fuels From Seawater? Streamlined Marine Energy
Discover how electrochemical catalysis enables one-step fuel synthesis from seawater with simplified structures and milder operating conditions.
What Are The Advantages Of Using Platinum Mesh As An Auxiliary Electrode? Ensure High-Precision Hydrogen Charging
Discover why platinum mesh is the gold standard for cathodic hydrogen charging, offering unmatched chemical inertness and current uniformity.
Why Are Industrial-Grade Gas Separation Reactors Required For Sapo-34 Testing? Ensure Reliable High-Pressure Results
Learn why industrial reactors are essential for testing SAPO-34 membranes at 3.0 MPa to ensure data validity in gas separation.
Why Is The Selection Of A High-Quality Reference Electrode Critical In The Electrochemical Synthesis? | Kintek
Learn how high-quality reference electrodes ensure stable potential, prevent over-oxidation, and guarantee conductivity in conducting polymers.
What Are The Advantages Of Electrodeposition For Gqds On Tio2? Enhance Adhesion And Precision In Your Research
Learn why electrodeposition outperforms immersion for loading GQDs on TiO2 nanorods, offering better adhesion and precise loading control.
Why Are Platinum Electrodes Preferred As Anodes In (Non-)Kolbe Electrolysis? Enhancing Biomass Upgrading Selectivity
Learn why platinum electrodes are the top choice for Kolbe electrolysis in biomass upgrading due to high oxygen overpotential and durability.
Why Are Nickel-Based Materials Preferred For Electrodes In Alkaline Water Electrolyzers? The Economic & Technical Edge
Learn why nickel-based electrodes are the industry standard for alkaline water electrolyzers, balancing corrosion resistance and cost-efficiency.
Why Is A Cooling Circulation System Required For Niobium Material Electropolishing? Essential Thermal Control Guide
Learn why cooling systems are vital for niobium electropolishing: managing electrochemical heat, stabilizing voltage, and preventing decomposition.
What Is The Specific Use Of Copper Foil Cathodes In Smco Magnet Recovery? Optimize Alloy Electrodeposition Results
Learn why copper foil cathodes are essential for the in-situ recovery of Co–Fe–Cu alloys through high-efficiency electrodeposition processes.
Why Is Platinum Wire Used As A Quasi-Reference Electrode (Qre) In Dmf? Unlock Precision In Non-Aqueous Electrochemistry
Learn why platinum wire is the ideal QRE for DMF-based cells, ensuring chemical stability and precise phase analysis for Sm-Co magnet research.
What Are The Technical Benefits Of Using Pem Reactors For Gaseous Biomass? Enhancing Stability And Purity
Learn how PEM reactors eliminate liquid electrolytes, stabilize platinum catalysts, and simplify separation for gaseous biomass conversion.
What Are The Applications For The Platinum-Titanium Functional Electrode? Unlock Precision In Electrochemistry
Discover how Platinum-Titanium electrodes excel in precious metal plating, hydrogen production, water treatment, and biomedical research.
What Roles Do Platinum Electrodes And Ag/Agcl Electrodes Play In Coating Analysis? Ensuring Precision In Testing
Learn how platinum counter electrodes and Ag/AgCl reference electrodes work together to provide accurate, interference-free coating analysis.
What Are The Advantages Of Using A Platinum Mesh As The Cathode Material? Achieve Purity In Tio2/Cuxoy Nanotube Growth
Discover why platinum mesh is the ideal cathode for TiO2/CuxOy nanotubes, offering chemical stability, purity, and electric field uniformity.
What Is The Primary Function Of A Laboratory Jacketed Reaction Cell? Master Thermal Control In Electrocatalysis
Learn how jacketed reaction cells provide precise thermal regulation and eliminate environmental variables in wastewater treatment experiments.
What Is The Significance Of Using An Ag/Agcl Reference Electrode In Hexavalent Chromium Reduction? Ensure Precision
Learn why the Ag/AgCl reference electrode is vital for stable potential control and accurate data in electrochemical Cr(VI) reduction experiments.
What Are The Advantages Of Using Ptfe Molds For Electrolyte Membranes? Optimize Your Lab's Solid-State Research
Discover why PTFE molds are essential for poly(ether-urethane) membranes, ensuring defect-free demolding and superior surface uniformity.
What Is The Purpose Of Using Electrolytic Polishing On Copper Foils? Optimize Your Cvd Graphene & Hbn Growth Surface
Learn how electrolytic polishing on copper foils reduces roughness and removes oxides to ensure high-quality CVD growth of graphene and hBN.
Why Must Li2S–Gese2–P2S5 Electrolytes Be Pressurized During Eis Testing? Optimizing Solid-State Conductivity Analysis
Learn why applying pressure to Li2S–GeSe2–P2S5 electrolytes during EIS is crucial to eliminate voids and reveal true intrinsic ionic conductivity.
What Is The Function Of Ptfe Molds In Peo Membrane Casting? Ensure Defect-Free Solid-State Electrolyte Production
Discover how specialized PTFE molds enable uniform thickness, chemical purity, and damage-free demolding for PEO-based solid-state electrolytes.
What Is The Role Of Platinum Electrodes In Electrolytic Etching? Reveal Precise Stainless Steel Microstructure
Learn how platinum electrodes provide chemical stability and stable current distribution for precise stainless steel electrolytic etching results.
What Roles Do Precision Pipettes And Titanium Foil Play In Catalyst Testing? Ensure Exact Loading And Signal Integrity
Learn how precision pipettes and titanium foil ensure accurate platinum loading and corrosion resistance for reliable electrocatalyst data.
Why Is Platinum Typically Selected As The Auxiliary Electrode For Electrochemical Testing Of Oxazoline Inhibitors?
Learn why platinum's chemical inertness and conductivity make it the premier choice for precise oxazoline inhibitor electrochemical testing.
What Role Does An Ag/Agcl Reference Electrode Play In Organic Solvent Dissolution? Precision Stability For Noble Metals
Learn how Ag/AgCl reference electrodes provide stable potentials for noble metal dissolution in organic solvents while managing junction potential.
What Role Does Hydrophilic Carbon Fiber Paper Play As An Electrode Material? Enhancing Flow Cell Efficiency
Learn how hydrophilic carbon fiber paper serves as a dual-role electrode in flow cells, optimizing conductivity and fluid dynamics.
What Are The Unique Advantages Of Using A Solid Electrolyte (Se) Reaction Cell System? Achieve Ultra-Pure H2O2 Production
Discover how Solid Electrolyte (SE) reaction cells eliminate salt contamination and streamline hydrogen peroxide production for industrial purity.
What Are The Technical Advantages Of Rvc Foam For Hydrogen Evolution? Enhance Your 3D Electrode Performance
Discover how Reticulated Vitreous Carbon (RVC) foam optimizes hydrogen evolution through high porosity, mass transfer, and superior surface area.
What Advantages Do Tungsten Electrodes Provide Compared To Steel In Cgde? Superior Stability & Chemical Resistance
Learn why tungsten outperforms steel in chlorine-rich CGDE by preventing metal chloride formation and resisting extreme thermal stress.
How Does An Electrolytic Polishing And Etching Unit Assist In Revealing Grain Boundaries? High-Res Alloy Analysis
Learn how electrolytic units reveal grain boundaries in alloys like INCONEL 740H through electrochemical polishing and etching for microanalysis.
What Are The Design Advantages Of A Three-Chamber Flow Cell? Maximize Co2 Reduction Efficiency
Learn how three-chamber flow cells prevent cross-interference and enhance multi-carbon selectivity in CO2 reduction systems.
What Is The Function Of A High-Purity Platinum Foil Electrode? Master Tio2 Nanotube Anodic Oxidation
Learn how high-purity platinum foil electrodes stabilize the anodic oxidation process to ensure vertically oriented TiO2 nanotube growth.
What Is The Function Of A 2032-Type Coin Cell Case In Solid-State Battery Testing? Optimize Interfacial Connectivity
Learn how 2032 coin cell cases provide vital hermetic sealing and stack pressure to ensure reliable electrochemical testing for solid-state batteries.
Why Is A Battery Test Fixture With Pressure Control Functionality Necessary For All-Solid-State Battery Testing?
Learn why pressure-controlled fixtures are vital for all-solid-state batteries to maintain ionic pathways and manage material volume changes.
What Are The Dual Functions Of A High-Strength Stainless Steel Crucible In A Liquid Metal Electrochemical Corrosion Cell?
Discover how stainless steel crucibles act as both containment vessels and counter electrodes in LBE alloy corrosion testing.
Why Is The Physical Grinding Process Prohibited For Plated Electrodes? Protect Your Gold And Platinum Lab Equipment
Learn why physical grinding destroys plated electrodes and how to properly maintain your gold, platinum, and silver-plated surfaces for research.
What Are The Primary Considerations For Selecting A Platinum Mesh? Optimize Electrochemical Testing For Zr2.5Nb Alloys
Learn why electrochemical inertness and surface area are critical when choosing platinum mesh electrodes for Zr2.5Nb alloy testing and data purity.
What Is The Role Of A Customized Pressure Cell In Testing Battery Performance? Ensure Stable High-Areal Capacity Cycling
Learn how customized pressure cells apply mechanical force to maintain particle contact and prevent resistance in high-loading battery testing.
Why Is A Precise High-Temperature Heating And Control System Necessary For Nitrate-To-Ammonia Electrosynthesis Reactors?
Learn how precise heating optimizes nitrate-to-ammonia electrosynthesis by boosting reaction kinetics and reducing energy consumption.
What Is The Role Of An Ion Exchange Membrane In Mcca Kolbe Electrolysis? Enhance Purity & Safety In Your Lab
Learn how ion exchange membranes optimize MCCA conversion by controlling pH, preventing gas mixing, and suppressing side reactions in electrolysis.
Why Is A Platinum (Pt) Counter Electrode Necessary For 17-4 Ph Stainless Steel Analysis? Ensure Data Integrity
Learn why platinum's chemical inertness and conductivity are vital for accurate electrochemical testing of 17-4 PH stainless steel.
Why Is A 3-Electrode Cell Used For Eis Testing Of Magnesium Coatings? Ensuring Precise Electrochemical Data
Learn why the three-electrode configuration is essential for accurate EIS testing of magnesium coatings by eliminating polarization errors.
What Are The Functions Of A Glassy Carbon Electrode In Cv Testing Of Antioxidants? Enhance Your Redox Analysis Accuracy
Learn how glassy carbon electrodes function in CV systems to measure antioxidant strength through anodic peak potential and redox current capture.
What Role Does A Tungsten Electrode Play In Monitoring Mgoh+ In Molten Salts? Expert Cyclic Voltammetry Insights
Learn how tungsten electrodes enable real-time detection of corrosive MgOH+ impurities in molten chloride salts using Cyclic Voltammetry.
What Is The Primary Purpose Of Nitrogen Purging In Alloy 22 Electrochemical Cell Testing? Ensure Data Accuracy
Learn why nitrogen purging is essential for Alloy 22 testing to remove oxygen interference and ensure precise electrochemical data integrity.
Why Are Silicone Sealing Gaskets Essential In Edc Experiments? Ensure Precision And Leak-Free Electrolyte Confinement
Discover why silicone gaskets are vital for Electrochemical Droplet Cell (EDC) accuracy, ensuring precise contact area and leak-free measurements.
Why Is An Ag/Agcl Reference Electrode Preferred For Corrosion Potential In Acidic Systems? Ensure Stability And Accuracy.
Learn why Ag/AgCl reference electrodes are the gold standard for stainless steel corrosion analysis in acidic media, ensuring data stability.
What Are The Advantages Of A Customized Battery Test Mold With A Force Sensor? Master Pressure-Impedance Correlation.
Discover how integrated force sensors in battery molds optimize EIS for all-solid-state batteries through real-time pressure control and monitoring.
How Do Ultrasonic Cell Disruptors Or Dispersion Equipment Function During Zif-8 Synthesis? Master Acoustic Cavitation
Learn how ultrasonic equipment uses acoustic cavitation and hotspots to drive rapid nucleation and prevent agglomeration in ZIF-8 nanoparticles.
What Is The Purpose Of Specialized Pressure Devices In Sulfide Solid-State Batteries? Ensure Chemo-Mechanical Stability
Learn how continuous external pressure prevents interface detachment and mitigates chemo-mechanical failure in sulfide solid-state batteries.
What Is The Primary Function Of A High-Precision Electrochemical Workstation? Optimize Your Reactor Performance
Learn how electrochemical workstations (potentiostats) evaluate reactor performance through precise voltage control and real-time monitoring.
What Is The Function Of The Sce In Testing Fecrniconb0.5 Alloys? Achieve Precise Electrochemical Measurements
Learn how the Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE) acts as a stable reference point for measuring corrosion and passivation in FeCrNiCoNb0.5 alloys.
How Does A Platinum Electrode And Ag/Agcl Reference Electrode Monitor Aluminum Foil Leaching? Precision Redox Control
Learn how platinum and Ag/AgCl electrodes function together to monitor oxidative activity and optimize oxidant use in aluminum foil leaching.
How Is In-Situ Raman Spectroscopy Utilized To Evaluate The Stability Of Anti-Corrosion Coatings? Precision Real-Time Monitoring
Discover how in-situ Raman spectroscopy detects coating failure on copper powders by identifying cuprous and cupric oxide spectral fingerprints.
Why Are High-Density Graphite Or Metal Baskets Necessary For Actinide Oxide Reduction? Key Roles In Direct Electrolysis
Learn why graphite and metal baskets are vital for the electrolytic reduction of actinide oxides, serving as both containers and current collectors.
Why Does The Design Of Supercritical Fluid Electrochemical Autoclaves Use A Nickel-Base Shell And A Titanium Liner?
Learn how the nickel-base superalloy shell and titanium alloy liner design solves the challenge of pressure and corrosion in supercritical testing.
Why Must A Photoelectrochemical Battery System Be Equipped With A Precision Circulating Water Bath? Ensure Accuracy.
Learn why precision circulating water baths are essential for thermal management, data validity, and safety in photoelectrochemical systems.
Why Are Zirconia-Polysulfone Composite Materials Frequently Utilized As Diaphragms In Alkaline Water Electrolysis?
Discover why zirconia-polysulfone composites are the top choice for electrolysis diaphragms, balancing chemical stability and ionic conductivity.
Why Is It Necessary To Use An Ultrasonic Cell Disruptor Before Yeast Flow Cytometry? Ensure Data Accuracy
Learn how ultrasonic cell disruptors eliminate yeast cell aggregation to ensure accurate single-cell analysis in flow cytometry.
What Are The Advantages Of Using A Platinum Counter Electrode? Ensure Purity In Photocatalytic Coating Deposition
Learn why platinum counter electrodes are vital for electrodeposition, offering chemical inertness, high conductivity, and impurity-free coatings.
Why Is An H-Type Reactor With A Pem Necessary For Ammonia Synthesis? Ensure Data Accuracy In Nitrogen Fixation
Learn why the H-type reactor and proton exchange membrane are critical for preventing ammonia re-oxidation and ensuring high Faradaic efficiency.
What Are The Critical Precautions To Take When Using Titanium Electrodes? Pro-Tips For Maximizing Electrode Longevity
Learn essential safety and maintenance protocols for titanium electrodes, including coating protection, polarity rules, and chemical safety.
What Are The Advantages Of Using Ptfe Molds For Li7P3S11 Sulfide Electrolytes? Ensuring Purity And Ease Of Demolding
Discover why PTFE molds outperform metal for Li7P3S11 pelletizing, focusing on chemical inertness, impurity prevention, and superior demolding.
What Role Does A Laboratory Potentiostat Play In Evaluating Polyester Coatings? Data-Driven Anti-Corrosion Analysis
Discover how potentiostats and EIS quantify polyester coating durability, water absorption, and shielding efficiency through non-destructive testing.
How Does A Potentiostatic Electrolytic Etching System Evaluate Aisi 316Ti Sensitization? Master Astm A262 Compliance
Learn how potentiostatic systems use electrochemical control and oxalic acid to reveal sensitization patterns in AISI 316Ti per ASTM A262 standards.
What Is The Rationale For Using Steel Wool Cathodes? Boost Efficiency In Metal Recovery From Dilute Solutions
Discover why stainless steel fiber felt and steel wool cathodes are essential for high-efficiency electrowinning in dilute electrolytes.
How Does Increasing The Surface Area Of A Platinum Cathode Optimize The Molybdenum Target Electrochemical Dissolution?
Learn how increasing platinum cathode surface area reduces impedance and cell voltage to speed up molybdenum dissolution safely.
What Parameters Are Analyzed Using An Electrochemical Workstation For Latp Stability? Optimize Your Interface Research
Learn how electrochemical workstations and specialized cells analyze ionic conductivity, transference numbers, and impedance for LATP stability.
What Is The Core Role Of Specialized Pressurized Battery Test Cell Dies? Optimizing All-Solid-State Battery Testing
Learn how specialized pressurized battery test cell dies maintain critical solid-to-solid contact and reduce impedance in solid-state battery R&D.
How Does The Selection Of Reference Electrodes Correlate With Electrolyte Ph In Her Testing? Ensure Precise Potential
Learn why Ag/AgCl is vital for acidic and Hg/HgO for alkaline electrolytes in HER testing to prevent potential drift and overpotential errors.
What Is The Function Of High-Porosity Carbon-Based Gas Diffusion Electrodes? Optimize Electro-Fenton Efficiency
Learn how high-porosity carbon GDEs drive in-situ H2O2 generation in electro-Fenton processes to maximize organic pollutant degradation.
What Is A Growth Cell And What Are Its Essential Components In The Hpht Process? Master Diamond Synthesis Core
Learn about the HPHT growth cell, the core reaction chamber where diamond seed, graphite, and metal catalysts transform into lab-grown gemstones.
What Advantages Do Ptfe Molds Offer For Composite Polymer Electrolyte Casting? Ensure Defect-Free Membrane Fabrication
Discover why PTFE molds are essential for casting electrolyte membranes, offering low surface energy, chemical inertness, and damage-free peeling.
What Are The Specific Functions Of The Platinum Counter Electrode And The Silver/Silver Chloride Reference Electrode? Guide
Understand the roles of Pt counter and Ag/AgCl reference electrodes in decoupling current and potential for accurate electrochemical testing.
How Does An Electrochemical Workstation Evaluate Ti/Ta2O5–Iro2 Electrodes? Expert Performance & Stability Analysis
Learn how electrochemical workstations use LSV, CV, and Tafel analysis to quantify catalytic performance and durability of Ti/Ta2O5–IrO2 electrodes.
How Does An Ultrasonic Homogenization System Disrupt Plant Cell Structures? Boost Extraction With Acoustic Cavitation
Learn how ultrasonic homogenization uses acoustic cavitation and micro-jets to rupture plant cell walls for faster, more efficient extraction.
What Are The Technical Advantages Of Using Ceramic Materials As Membranes In Mfc Stacks? Boost Scalability And Durability
Discover why ceramic membranes excel in MFC stacks, offering superior durability, cost-effectiveness, and structural-functional integration.
How Does An Electrochemical Workstation Evaluate Corrosion Resistance Of Welded Joints? Expert Testing Guide
Learn how electrochemical workstations use potentiodynamic polarization and three-electrode systems to assess corrosion in dissimilar metal welds.
Why Is A Glassy Carbon Disc Electrode An Indispensable Consumable? Ensure Reliable Catalyst Evaluation Today
Learn why glassy carbon disc electrodes are vital for catalyst testing, offering superior conductivity, chemical inertness, and a wide potential window.
What Is The Role Of A High-Precision Potentiostat In Indium Electrowinning? Optimize Your Kinetic Studies Today
Learn how high-precision potentiostats and electrochemical workstations analyze kinetics, overpotentials, and electrolytes in indium electrowinning.
Why Are Dimensionally Stable Anodes (Dsa) Preferred For Indium Electrowinning? Ensure High-Purity Results.
Learn why DSAs and high-purity graphite are essential for indium electrowinning to prevent contamination and optimize energy efficiency.
How Do A Dc Power Supply And An Electrolytic Cell Collaborate To Evaluate The Hydrogen Embrittlement Of Alloys?
Learn how DC power supplies and electrolytic cells create in-situ hydrogen charging environments to test high-entropy alloy durability.
How Does An Electrochemical Anodization System Contribute To Highly Ordered 1D Tio2 Nanotube Arrays?
Learn how electrochemical anodization systems precisely sculpt TiO2 nanotubes for electronics and medical implants through controlled voltage.